Coastal Policy Green Paper

Foreword

Preamble

Key Findings

Introduction: Why a Coastal Policy?

A: Mananaging the coast

B: The South African coast

C: Towards a coastal policy

Appendices

 

 

 

Towards Sustainable Coastal Development in South Africa

© Copyright subsists in this work. Any unauthorised reproduction of the work, in any manner or form; publishing, performance, and broadcasting of the work; transmission of the work in a diffusion service or adaptation of the work, is an act of copyright infringement and will make the doer liable for civil law copyright infringement and may, in certain circumstances, make the doer liable for criminal prosecution.

Coastal Management Policy Programme (Association incorporated under Section 21) 1998.

FIGURES AND TABLES

FIGURES

1. Coastal Activities
2. Coastal Boundaries of Relevant Laws and Conventions
3. Understanding the Coastal System
4. Rainfall
5. Oceans and Currents
6. Coastal Vegetation
7. Scenes from the West, South and East Coasts
8. Population Density
9. Gross Geographic Product
10. Coastal Regions
11. Namaqualand
12. West Coast
13. Cape Metro
14. Agulhas Coast
15. Garden Route
16. Sunshine Coast
17. Border-Kei
18. Wild Coast
19. Hibiscus Coast
20. Durban Metro
21. Lower Tugela/Dolphin Coast
22. Zululand Coast
23. Maputaland Coast
24. Prince Edward Islands
25. Model A: Coastal Commission
26. Model B: National – Provincial Coastal Units
27. Model C: Fostering Strategic Alliances

TABLES

1. Landward and Seaward Boundaries
2. Estimated Value of Direct Benefits Provided by Coastal Ecosystems
3. Estimated Value of Indirect Benefits Provided by Coastal Ecosystems
4. Types of Integration Required in Coastal Management
5. South Africa's Estuaries
6. Key Elements of the Regional Vision Statements

Comments on this Coastal Policy Green Paper should be addressed to:

COASTAL MANAGEMENT POLICY PROGRAMME
PO Box 1828
Cape Town
8000

Tel: (021) 424-5054
Fax: (021) 424-2495
E-mail: cmpp@iafrica.com

The closing date for comments is 16 November 1998

REGIONAL MANAGER CONTACT DETAILS

Richard Martin Richard Martin Consulting Suite 167 Postnet X13 Parow East 7504 Tel: (021) 92-1045 Fax: (021) 92-1063 Cell: 083 261 5091 E-mail: rmartin@iafrica.com Sandra Wren & Mazizi Msutu Public Process Consultants P O Box 23088 Port Elizabeth 6000 Tel: (041) 34-8426 Fax: (041) 33-2002 Cell: SW: 082 490 9828 MM: 082 255 0999 E-mail: sjwren@iafrica.com Larry Field & Siyabulela Manona Ikhwezi Development Facilitators Postnet 154 Private Bag X9063 East London 5200 Tel: (0431) 5-5408 Fax: (0431) 726-0807 Cell: LF: 083 701 7132 SM: 082 659 8583 E-Mail: ikhwezi@iafrica.com Mfezeko (Prof) Sineke & Homer Michaelides Participative Solutions Africa P O Box 50577 Musgrave 4062 Tel: (031) 21-2702 Fax: (031) 21-2704 Cell: 082 956 3373 E-mail: psa@dbn.lia.net Duncan Hay Institute of Natural Resources Private Bag X01 Scottsville 3209 Tel: (0331) 46-0796 Fax: (0331) 46-0895 Cell: 083 630 1749 E-mail: hay@inr.unp.ac.za

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This Green Paper is the product of extensive input from interested and affected parties and coastal specialists and managers. It is not possible to list, by name, all those who have contributed to this effort. What must be made clear, however, is that the Green Paper could not have been prepared without this input and support – it has been a collective effort.

The support of the Ministry and Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism is gratefully acknowledged. The British Department for International Development has not only provided generous financial support, it has also given valuable guidance and advice. Policy Committee members have provided important insight, experience and direction. The practical insight of Regional Managers has also been important. Substantial contributions to this document have also been made by a number of specialists and Government officials, who have either served on Specialist Study Teams, or Task Teams, or made individual contributions.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT TEAM Watermeyer Prestedge Retief Deon Retief (Project Leader) Common Ground Consulting Muller Coetzee Bruce Glavovic (Project Manager) David Shandler David Abrahams Nicola Acutt Jonathan Browne Gary Koekemoer Caroline Petersen-Greene Glynis Ponton Malibongwe Yokwe Contract staff Lisa Kruger Clive Heydenrych

POLICY COMMITTEE Thandi Bosman Neels Brink Neil Fox Mandla Gidana Andy Gubb Dennis Laidler Niel Malan Maria Mbengashe Jeff McCarthy (Chairperson) Saythie Mitha Rudy van der Elst

REGIONAL MANAGERS Larry Field Duncan Hay Siyabulela Manona Richard Martin Homer Michaelides Mazizi Msutu Mfezeko (Prof) Sineke Sandra Wren

FOREWORD

South Africa's coast is a rich and diverse national asset. A robust yet delicate system, the coast is a source of opportunity for many South Africans. It is the bedrock of coastal communities and is of immense strategic importance to many economic sectors including tourism, trade, mining, agriculture and fisheries.

It is of the utmost importance to South Africa's broader economy that the opportunities provided by the coast are harnessed and managed in an equitable and sustainable manner. It is also both our privilege and our responsibility to preserve the integrity of the coast for current and future generations.

It is for these reasons that the Ministry has initiated the formulation of a Coastal Policy. This would not have been possible without the generous funding provided by the British Department for International Development. In keeping with a sincere commitment to co-operative governance, the Ministry has appointed a Policy Committee representative of government and civil society to prepare the policy.

This Coastal Policy Green Paper is the result of an extensive process of public participation and reflects the aims and interests of a broad range of stakeholders who live and work along the coast. The purpose of this document is to stimulate lively debate around issues and policy options that have been generated through the combination of specialist knowledge and stakeholder input.

I urge all South Africans to participate in this debate. This Green Paper is the first step towards integrated coastal management and the first step towards sustainable coastal development. The next step, which is the formulation of a practical and strategic Coastal Policy White Paper, is dependent on your input. The coast is our asset and our heritage — we should afford it the respect and the attention it deserves.

DR Z. PALLO JORDAN
MINISTER OF ENVIRONMENTAL AFFAIRS AND TOURISM

[ Top ]

PREAMBLE

The need for an integrated Coastal Policy to manage South Africa's dynamic and bountiful coast has long been recognised. This Coastal Policy Green Paper builds on studies and research previously undertaken by our local marine and coastal scientific community. Considerable work in the field of coastal management has also been carried out by the Department of Environmental Affairs, as well as provincial nature conservation and planning departments. This Green Paper has its roots in this earlier work, particularly that carried out by the Council for the Environment's Committee for Coastal and Marine Systems in the late 1980s. In building on this past work, and integrating it with input from an extensive process of public participation, the Green Paper lays the foundation for a new era of coastal management in South Africa.

The Coastal Management Policy Programme was initiated by the Ministry of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, in response to the recognition of the vital role that our coast can play in South Africa's future development. Having secured funding from the British Department for International Development, the Ministry appointed a Policy Committee to prepare a draft policy.

The Policy Committee is a significant partnership between Government and civil society and represents the interests of national Government, provincial Government, business, labour, community-based organisations, environmental non-governmental organisations and the sport and recreational sector. Each member has equal status and all decisions are made by consensus. The Policy Committee is made up of the following individuals:

• Thandi Bosman from SANCO National, representing the interests of Community-Based Organisations.
• Neels Brink from the Property Division of the Tongaat-Hulett Group, representing the interests of Business.
• Neil Fox from KwaZulu-Natal Province: Department of Local Government and Housing, representing Provincial Government.
• Mandla Gidana from the Food and Allied Workers Union, representing the interests of Labour.
• Andy Gubb from the Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa, representing the interests of Environmental non-governmental organisations.
• Dennis Laidler from Western Cape Province: Cape Nature Conservation, representing Provincial Government.
• Dr Niel Malan from the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism: Coastal Management Unit, representing National Government.
• Maria Mbengashe from Eastern Cape Province: Department of Economic Affairs, Environment and Tourism, representing Provincial Government.
• Professor Jeff McCarthy from the University of Durban Westville's Graduate School of Business and Institute for Social and Economic Research (independent Chairperson).
• Saythie Mithar from Northern Cape Province: Department of Health, Social Welfare and Environment, representing Provincial Government.
• Rudy van der Elst from the Oceanographic Research Institute, representing the interests of Sport and Recreation.

The Policy Committee appointed a Project Management Team to conduct the day-to-day management of the programme. The Project Management Team is co-ordinated by the following independent consultants:

• Deon Retief of Watermeyer Prestedge Retief
• Muller Coetzee, Bruce Glavovic and David Shandler of Common Ground Consulting.

Regional Managers have been appointed to co-ordinate regional activities:

• Richard Martin of Richard Martin Consulting (Namaqualand, West Coast, Cape Metro, Agulhas)
• Sandra Wren and Mazizi Msutu of Public Process Consultants (Garden Route, Sunshine Coast)
• Larry Field and Siyabulela Manona of Ikhwezi Development Facilitators (Wild Coast, Border Kei)
• Mfezeko Sineke and Homer Michaelides of Participative Solutions Africa (Hibiscus Coast, Durban Metro)
• Duncan Hay of the Institute of Natural Resources (Lower Tugela/Dolphin Coast, Zululand, Maputaland).

The Coastal Management Policy Programme has four fundamental goals. These are:

To promote meaningful public participation

The programme aims to ensure that all stakeholders will have the opportunity to participate in all stages of the policy formulation process, thereby ensuring broad ownership and a commitment to the final policy.

To develop a policy that has scientific integrity

This policy builds on the considerable body of knowledge and understanding about coastal systems and resources that has been developed through scientific research over many years.

To promote integrated coastal management

Effective coastal management requires partnerships between Government, civil society and the private sector. Integrated coastal management also refers to the need to co-ordinate and integrate the activities that take place at the coast.

To develop a practical policy

In order to be effective, the policy must be focused and practical, addressing priority and strategic coastal issues. A practical policy should be an ongoing process that includes policy formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of results, and, where appropriate, revisions to both the policy and implementation measures.

To achieve these goals it has been necessary to engage meaningfully with the scientific community, the public and all levels of Government.

To date, over 70 specialists have been involved in four Specialist Studies designed to provide vital information for the policy (see Appendix 4).The Study Teams were selected by an independent panel appointed by the South African Network for Coastal and Oceanographic Research. The studies have been independently reviewed and include:

• An assessment of related initiatives currently underway that could affect or be affected by the Coastal Policy
• Lessons learned from past experience, both nationally and internationally
• An assessment of the characteristics of the regions and resources of our coast
• An analysis of the laws and Government structures involved in coastal management.
• In addition, a specialist Task Team has contributed to the preparation of this Green Paper.

An extensive process of public participation has been the cornerstone for the development of this Green Paper. Twenty two visioning events were held around the coast in November and December 1997, involving over 800 people from more than 200 organisations. Over 40 regional meetings to discuss policy options were held between April and May 1998, involving over 500 people from more than 200 organisations. There has been ongoing consultation by Regional Managers, each of whom is in direct contact with between 400 and 800 stakeholders. Aside from public meetings, the Regional Managers have held one-on-one meetings and capacity building sessions with over 1 000 people from more than 200 organisations. Over 150 written submissions have already been received.

Programme information is distributed quarterly to approximately 17 000 people through the programme newsletter "Our Coast", in the four coastal languages, which are Xhosa, Zulu, Afrikaans and English. Similar levels of public participation will be maintained throughout the remaining stages of the programme, thereby resulting in a policy that truly reflects the interests of all South Africans.

There has been and will continue to be ongoing consultation with key Government officials at a national, provincial and local level, as well as with a broad range of political leaders.

On behalf of the Policy Committee, I would like to extend my thanks to the Minister and his Department, as well as to the British Government's Department for International Development, for their ongoing support and co-operation in the programme.

The Policy Committee would also like to thank all those who have provided input to the preparation of this Coastal Policy Green Paper. We believe that this document should stimulate vigorous debate and look forward to your comments and further involvement in the preparation of the Coastal Policy White Paper.

PROFESSOR JEFF McCARTHY
POLICY COMMITTEE - CHAIRPERSON

[ Top ]

KEY FINDINGS

"Africa's long and beautiful coasts and the abundance of marine resources can contribute to providing economic, food and environmental security for the continent. These coastal and marine resources, like the rest of Africa's environmental resources, cannot continue to be exploited in a manner that does not benefit Africa and her people. This is a paradox of a people dying from hunger, starvation and poverty when they are potentially so rich and well endowed."

- President Mandela, Excerpt from a message to the forthcoming meeting of the Advisory Committee on the Protection of the Sea, to be held in Cape Town in December 1998.

[ Top ]

BACKGROUND

The Green Paper is the product of an extensive process of public participation and specialist study carried out since May 1997 through the Coastal Management Policy Programme. Workshops will be held to obtain feedback on the Green Paper. Based on this feedback and further participation, a White Paper will be prepared, setting out South Africa's future policy on coastal management. The policy will then be implemented through appropriate institutional and legal arrangements, priority programmes and ongoing monitoring and review. The Coastal Management Policy Programme has generated wide public support for a new and innovative policy. This energy must be harnessed to develop shared responsibility for sustainable coastal development.

These Key Findings outline the need for a Coastal Policy, a vision for our coast, and principles, goals and objectives for coastal management. It also presents possible institutional and legal arrangements for implementing a new Coastal Policy. Key questions are outlined for your consideration and feedback.

[ Top ]

NEED FOR A COASTAL POLICY

Our coast is a rich national heritage that provides enormous benefits to the people of South Africa. It offers many opportunities for future economic and social development, particularly in under-developed areas of our country.

At present, the value of coastal ecosystems as a cornerstone for development is not acknowledged in decision-making. Our valuable coastal assets, and future development opportunities, will be squandered unless we maintain the diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems. South Africa needs to invest in coastal management to realise and sustain the benefits and opportunities the coast offers.

A radical new approach is needed to manage coastal resources wisely and to harness them for sustainable coastal development. A Coastal Policy is crucial in achieving this change. The Green Paper sets out a new approach to coastal management that aims to:

• Realise coastal benefits
• Sustain coastal benefits
• Promote proactive and co-operative governance.

Realising Coastal Benefits

A Coastal Policy will enable us to optimise the benefits we obtain from the coast. The Green Paper estimates the value of all coastal goods and services in South Africa to be about R179 billion annually – equivalent to 37% of our annual Gross Domestic Product. Examples include:

• At least 3.6 million South Africans depend largely on coastal food sources through subsistence activities, which are worth at least R1.1 billion annually.
• Over R4.2 billion of revenue is generated annually by transporting cargo through South Africa's ports.
• Tourism, recreational and leisure activities on our coast generate more than R15.2 billion annually, with over 20 million international and domestic visitors each year.
• The South African commercial fishing industry is worth about R1.7 billion annually and employs 27 000 people, with an additional 60 000 people in related sectors. Recreational fishing attracts over 600 000 enthusiasts, employs over 131 000 people and generates over R1.3 billion in revenue each year.
• Eight of the ten current Spatial Development Initiatives are linked to the coast. Their proposals together have an anticipated total value of R90 billion and a projected employment of 90 000 people.

In addition to these direct benefits, our coast has significant aesthetic, cultural, educational, scientific and spiritual value. It also offers future development prospects that exceed those available in most other areas of the country. Our coast provides an important basis for future economic development, poverty reduction and sustainable job creation in South Africa.

Sustaining Coastal Benefits

Providing benefits to all South Africans on a sustained basis is only possible if we wisely manage the coastal ecosystems on which those benefits depend. This means managing coastal ecosystems in a way that recognises their inter-connected nature. Coastal ecosystems involve complex biological, chemical and physical inter-relationships between land and sea. The coast is a high-energy environment that is subject to constant change. These conditions give rise to a variety of landforms, plant and animal species and habitats, and to an abundance of natural resources.

The coast is also the site of complex inter-relationships between humans and natural systems. Although coastal ecosystems are resilient, they are finite and vulnerable to over-use, pollution and damage. Inappropriate decisions can expose human life and property to high risks. While many activities take place at the coast, these are seldom co-ordinated, reducing overall benefits.

Without effective management, many of our coastal resources will be over-used and degraded to the point where social and economic benefits can no longer be drawn from them. Our coast requires a dedicated, co-ordinated and integrated management approach to sustain the coastal ecosystems on which coastal benefits depend.

Promoting Proactive and Co-operative Governance

Current institutional and legal arrangements for coastal management are inefficient and fragmented, and fail to co-ordinate the many activities taking place at the coast. A proactive Coastal Policy is needed to promote harmony between sectoral policies, to strengthen institutional arrangements, to promote co-ordination and integration of planning, management and investment strategies, and to strengthen the human resource base for coastal management.

The Green Paper proposes an approach to coastal management that emphasises facilitation rather than regulation. It promotes co-operative governance and public-private partnerships in an effort to encourage shared responsibility for our special coastal heritage. It also suggests mechanisms for co-ordination and integration between different sectors.

To develop and implement this new approach, an investment must be made in coastal management. Only in this way can we maintain the diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems, and thereby realise and sustain the benefits and opportunities they provide. This investment will provide rich rewards to all South Africans. Failure to make such an investment will leave many coastal communities in severe poverty and will reduce options for future development.

In order to develop and implement this new approach, the Green Paper outlines a proposed national vision for our coast, and principles, goals and objectives for coastal management.

VISION AND PRINCIPLES

This proposed vision statement was developed after an extensive process of public participation. Based on your feedback, a final national vision statement will be prepared, discussed and agreed upon.

Proposed National Vision

• We celebrate the diversity and richness of our coast and seek an equitable balance of opportunities and benefits throughout our coast.

• We strive for a coast in which there is a balance between material prosperity, social development, spiritual fulfilment and ecological integrity, in the interests of all South Africans.

• We strive for a time when all South Africans feel that the coast is ours to enjoy in a spirit of community.

• We look forward to a time when all South Africans take responsibility for the health and sustainability of our coast in a spirit of stewardship and caring.

• We seek to guide the management of our coast in a way that benefits current and future generations, and honours our obligations and undertakings from local to global levels.

To realise this vision, we need to set out the principles which guide our actions, and the goals and objectives of the Coastal Policy.

Principles for Coastal Management

To achieve the ideal of sustainable coastal development, the following principles for coastal management are proposed:

1. National heritage. The coast should be retained as a national heritage, with public rights to access and benefit from coastal resources.
2. Economic development. Economic development opportunities at the coast should be optimised to meet basic human needs and to promote human well-being.
3. Social equity. Coastal management efforts should ensure that all people, including future generations, are treated with dignity, fairness and justice.
4. Ecological integrity. The diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems should be maintained.
5. Holism. The coast should be treated as an indivisible system, recognising the inter-relationships between coastal users and ecosystems and between the land and sea.
6. Risk-aversion and precaution. Coastal management efforts should adopt a risk-averse and precautionary approach under conditions of uncertainty.
7. Duty of care. Coastal management is a shared responsibility. All people should be responsible for the consequences of their actions, and have the duty to act with care to avoid damage to others and their coastal environment.
8. Co-ordination and integration. Coastal management efforts should be co-ordinated and integrated, and conducted in an open, inclusive and transparent manner.

[ Top ]

GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

The goals and objectives of the Green Paper are organised into five integrating themes. Each objective is followed by more detailed policy statements in the Green Paper.

THEME A: OUR NATIONAL HERITAGE

Goal A1: Physical Access

To ensure that the public has the right of physical access to the sea, and to and along the sea-shore, on a managed basis

Objectives:

• Opportunities for public access shall be provided at identified, appropriate coastal locations.
• Where appropriate, public access shall be managed to minimise adverse impacts and to resolve incompatible uses.

Goal A2: Equitable Access

To ensure that the public has the right of equitable access to the opportunities and benefits of the coast, on a managed basis

Objectives:

• Coastal resources shall be allocated and used in a manner that is fair and just, with particular attention given to the needs of disadvantaged communities.

Goal A3: State Responsibility

To ensure that the State fulfils its duties as the legal custodian of all coastal State assets on behalf of the people of South Africa

Objectives:

• The State shall retain ownership and ensure effective management of coastal waters and the sea-shore.
• The State shall effectively manage, retain and endeavour to extend the Admiralty Reserve.
• The State shall retain ownership of and ensure effective management of State land along the sea-shore.
• Coastal assets under the control of parastatal organisations shall be managed in the public interest, and coastal resources shall not be alienated for private purposes.

Goal A4: Distinctive Characteristics and Dedicated Management

To address the distinctive characteristics of the coastal system through dedicated coastal planning and management

Objectives:

• Coastal planning and management efforts shall demonstrate that the inter-relationships between the land and sea, and between coastal ecosystems and human users, have been taken into account.

THEME B: COASTAL PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT

Goal B1: Coast-dependent Economies and Activities

To promote the diversity, vitality and sustainability of coastal economies and activities, giving preference to those that are distinctly coastal or dependent on a coastal location

Objectives:

• Coastal planning and management efforts shall proactively seek to realise the long-term economic development potential of coastal localities and regions.
• Preference shall be given to distinctly coastal economic development opportunities and to activities that are dependent on a coastal location.
• A system of appropriately located and financially sustainable ports, small-craft harbours and related facilities shall be developed and effectively maintained.
• Adequate and appropriate public facilities shall be provided at appropriate coastal locations.
• Opportunities for mariculture shall be identified and encouraged at appropriate coastal locations.
• Coastal tourism and recreational development opportunities shall be identified and promoted at appropriate coastal locations.
• All activities relating to coastal prospecting, mining and the exploitation of petroleum, oil and gas shall be conducted in an environmentally responsible manner.

Goal B2: Balance and Diversity

To maintain and enhance the diversity and harmony of coastal land- and sea-scapes by maintaining an appropriate balance between built, rural and wilderness areas

Objectives:

• Nodal development and densification of existing nodes shall be promoted to sustain the economic potential and protect the aesthetic, amenity, cultural and ecological values of coastal localities and regions.
• New structures shall be designed and located in a manner that retains the visual beauty, wilderness character and associated benefits of undeveloped coastal areas.
• Inappropriate development in coastal areas of high agricultural potential (including commercial forestry) shall be discouraged.

Goal B3: Design and Management of Coastal Settlements

To design and manage coastal settlements to be in harmony with local and regional aesthetic, amenity, biophysical and cultural opportunities and constraints

Objectives:

• The design and built form of coastal settlements shall be in harmony with the aesthetic, amenity, biophysical, economic, social and cultural opportunities and constraints of coastal localities and regions.
• Coastal settlements and associated activities shall be managed to promote and enhance the socio-economic benefits of the coastal setting and to minimise adverse effects on coastal ecosystems.

Goal B4: Risk and Natural Hazards

To plan and manage coastal development so as to avoid increasing the incidence and severity of natural hazards and to avoid exposure of people, property and economic activities to significant risk from dynamic coastal processes

Objectives:

• Coastal development shall be planned and managed to minimise disruption of dynamic coastal processes and to avoid exposure to significant risk from natural hazards.
• The potential consequences of climate change and associated sea-level rise shall be taken into account in all coastal planning and management.

Goal B5: Historical and Cultural Heritage

To preserve, protect or promote historical and cultural resources and activities of the coast, where appropriate

Objectives:

• Coastal resources of significant historical, archaeological, cultural and scientific value shall be identified and, where appropriate, preserved, protected or promoted.
• Traditional and cultural activities at the coast shall be given special consideration in coastal planning and management.

THEME C: POLLUTION CONTROL AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

Goal C1: Minimisation and Control

To implement pollution control and waste management measures in order to minimise and strictly control discharges into coastal ecosystems

Objectives:

• The discharge of all land-based point and diffuse sources of pollution that are likely to end up in coastal estuaries, ground and surface waters and the air shall be minimised and strictly controlled.
• The discharge of marine pollutants and waste, especially ship-board waste, marine fuels and ballast waters, into coastal waters shall be minimised and strictly controlled.
• Adequate and effective anticipatory and reactive measures shall be implemented to reduce the adverse consequences of human-induced coastal pollution disasters and hazards.

Goal C2: Ecosystem Health and Human Uses

To ensure that pollution has minimal adverse impact on coastal ecosystems and their ability to support beneficial human uses

Objectives:

• Pollution control and waste management measures shall be implemented to ensure that discharges are kept within the assimilative capacity of coastal ecosystems.
• The discharge of pollutants and waste into coastal ecosystems shall not be allowed to reach levels that adversely affect human health, use and enjoyment of the coast.

THEME D: NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Goal D1: Diversity, Health and Productivity

To maintain the diversity, health and productivity of coastal processes and ecosystems

Objectives:

• The natural functioning of coastal processes and the health and productivity of coastal ecosystems shall be maintained.
• The biological diversity of coastal ecosystems shall be maintained.

Goal D2: Coastal Protected Areas

To establish and effectively manage a system of protected areas to maintain the diversity of coastal ecosystems

Objectives:

• An adequate and representative system of protected areas shall be established and managed to maintain the diversity of coastal ecosystems, habitats and species.
• Coastal protected areas shall be integrated across both the land and sea, where practicable.
• The intensity of human use in protected areas shall vary according to the appropriate level of protection required to meet ecological objectives, local needs and the compatibility of activities.

Goal D3: Renewable Resource Use

To ensure that renewable resource user practices are in accord with the regenerative capacity of coastal ecosystems

Objectives:

• An adequate understanding of the regenerative capacity of coastal ecosystems shall be developed to guide decisions about the appropriate types, scale and rate of renewable resource use.
• The use of renewable coastal resources shall be guided by the need to optimise the long-term economic viability of the activity.

Goal D4: Non-Renewable Resource Use

To use non-renewable coastal resources in a manner that optimises the public interest and retains options for alternative and future uses

Objectives:

• Non-renewable coastal resources shall be used in a manner that retains multiple-use options in the public interest.
• Non-renewable coastal resources shall be used in a manner that retains options for potential future and sequential uses in the public interest.

Goal D5: Rehabilitation

To rehabilitate damaged or degraded coastal ecosystems and habitats

Objectives:

• Coastal ecosystems and habitats which are substantially degraded or damaged as a result of past human activities shall be rehabilitated.
• Coastal developers shall rehabilitate degraded or damaged areas to acceptable standards.

THEME E: GOVERNANCE AND CAPACITY BUILDING

Goal E1: Public Participation, Partnerships and Co-responsibility

To ensure meaningful public participation and partnerships between the State, the private sector and civil society in order to foster co-responsibility in coastal management

Objectives:

• There shall be meaningful public participation in all coastal planning and management efforts.
• Organs of State shall actively seek to foster a sense of co-responsibility by developing partnerships with the private sector and civil society in coastal planning and management.

Goal E2: Capacity Building and Coastal Awareness

To build the capacity of coastal managers and interested and affected parties to promote coastal awareness and more effective coastal planning and management

Objectives:

• A coastal management awareness, education and training programme shall be developed and implemented for interested and affected parties.
• Provision shall be made to ensure that there is adequate financial support, suitably trained and experienced staff, and appropriate technical equipment for coastal planning and management.
• An effective, accessible, co-ordinated national information system shall be designed and maintained to support coastal planning and management efforts.

Goal E3: Efficient, Effective and Co-ordinated Management

To promote an efficient, effective, co-operative, co-ordinated and integrated coastal planning and management approach

Objectives:

• A combination of regulatory and economic instruments shall be used to promote more proactive and effective self-regulation and collective responsibility.
• Coastal planning and management decision-making and approval procedures shall be clarified, speeded up and simplified.
• Institutional arrangements shall promote dialogue, co-operation, co-ordination and integration.
• Conflict shall be resolved in a collaborative problem-solving, consensus- building manner.

Goal E4: International Responsibilities

To fulfil international and trans-boundary responsibilities, whilst retaining South Africa's sovereignty

Objectives:

• International protocols and agreements relevant to coastal planning and management shall be fulfilled.
• Harmonious relations shall be developed with countries whose activities directly or indirectly affect the diversity, health and productivity of South Africa's coastal ecosystems.

Goal E5: The Process of Coastal Management

To conduct coastal planning and management activities in a manner that promotes learning through continuous research, monitoring, review and adaptation

Objectives:

• A Coastal Management Programme shall be developed, implemented and adapted through a process of continuous research, monitoring, review and adaptation.
• Coastal planning and management activities shall be strategic, focused and practically implementable.

[ Top ]

INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL ARRANGEMENTS

The Green Paper proposes a number of options for institutional and legal arrangements to implement the policy. Your input is required as to the best model or combination of models, bearing in mind the varied characteristics and circumstances of our coastal regions and provinces. These suggestions should be seen as a point of departure for further discussion. Key elements of the institutional models are outlined in the table below.

Institutional Arrangements

	Model A	Model B	Model C
Key thrust of the model	Independent Coastal Commission	Maintain existing lead agency with strengthening of existing structures	Creation of strategic alliances with national lead agency
Lead agency – at national Government	Coastal Commission (new structure above line ministries)	Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT)	DEAT and either Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Department of Trade and Industry or Department of Land Affairs
Key functions of national agencies	- Provide national Coastal Policy, standards, programmes - Ensure that all national departments comply with Coastal Policy - Manage and regulate coastal management activities	- Provide national Coastal Policy, standards, programmes - DEAT to co-ordinate and facilitate national coastal management activities through Committee for Environmental Co-ordination (CEC)	- Provide national Coastal Policy, standards, programmes - Lead agencies to co-ordinate and facilitate national coastal management activities through CEC and/or in partnership with lead agencies
Provincial / Regional level	Creation of provincial Coastal Commission Offices	- Identify and strengthen lead department - Create provincial coastal working groups	- Alliance with regional offices – coastal management units to link with regional offices - Alliance with no regional offices - the provincial departments to reflect national links
Local level (e.g., District or Metropolitan)	- Create regional or Metro Coastal Commission Offices - Provision made for other local management structures	Provision made for range of local forums, working groups, coast care groups or public-private partnerships, depending on local circumstances	Provision made for range of local forums, working groups, coast care groups or public-private partnerships, depending on local circumstances and degree of national Government involvement at local levels

Legal Arrangements

Two main legislative approaches are proposed to give effect to the institutional arrangements outlined above. The first approach is to use existing and pending legislation. Some key pieces of legislation are:

• The Sea Shore Act
• The National Environmental Management Bill
• The Environment Conservation Act
• Provincial legislation in terms of the Development Facilitation Act.

The alternative approach is the formulation of new coastal legislation, including the following options:

Comprehensive Coastal Management Act - This would involve passing a comprehensive Act that would govern all activities in a defined coastal area. A "super coastal agency" could be required to implement such a law. Although such an arrangement has been viewed as appropriate in a number of other countries, its practicality for the current South African context is seriously questioned and it is likely to enjoy little support amongst Governmental decision-makers.

A Framework Coastal Management Act - The most recent example of a Framework Act is the proposed National Environmental Management Bill. Such an approach focuses on the development of norms to govern the actions of various role-players. A Framework Coastal Management Act could be built, at least in part, around the Sea Shore Act. It could more clearly delineate the respective roles and responsibilities of national, provincial and local spheres of Government with respect to coastal areas, which at present are confusing and contradictory. Such an Act could specify coastal principles and require coastal provinces to formulate their own coastal management acts.

Provincial Coastal Management Acts with or without a National Framework Act - Coastal Provinces could create Provincial Coastal Management Acts to reflect their specific management requirements for the coast. These Acts could be created with or without a national Framework Coastal Management Act.

Ensure that other national legislation is more responsive to coastal concerns

Specific coastal principles, focus or actions could be added to various national and provincial legislation and policies. Examples include Development Tribunals in terms of the Development Facilitation Act, the National Environmental Management Bill, the new Water Act and the Planning and Development Bills of the various provinces.

[ Top ]

KEY QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION

The purpose of this Green Paper is to stimulate discussion and debate about the most appropriate approach for managing our coast. Your feedback is essential to the further development of the policy. In particular, feedback is needed on how these proposals address your particular circumstances and responsibilities. This section outlines some of the key questions that should guide your feedback on the document:

1. Is the proposed focus on sustainable coastal development an appropriate one?
2. Do the proposed vision, principles, goals and objectives provide appropriate direction for developing and implementing a new Coastal Policy?
3. Is the proposal to define the coast as the broad interface between land and sea, with specific boundaries for different management purposes, an appropriate one?
4. Is the proposed policy approach, based on inclusive and facilitative coastal management with appropriate enforcement measures, more appropriate than the past regulatory or prescriptive approach?
5. How can public-private partnerships and meaningful public participation in coastal management be promoted?
6. Which option or combination of institutional arrangements (see models A, B and C) is likely to be most appropriate, realistic and effective?
7. Should new coastal legislation be put in place to implement the policy, or should an attempt be made to influence other policy and legislation?
8. How best can coastal management be funded, for example, through local, provincial and national Government budgets, assistance from the private sector and external funding?
9. What mechanisms should be put in place for monitoring, evaluation, review and readjustment of the Coastal Policy and its implementation?
10. How can awareness of coastal issues and capacity for coastal management be built?
11. Which are the priority issues for a new Coastal Policy to address?

Introduction

Why a Coastal Policy?

The first chapter provides an introduction to this Green Paper. It provides an overview of the following topics:

• Our coast, our future
• What is sustainable coastal development?
• What is public policy?
• The need for proactive guidance from Government.

OUR COAST, OUR FUTURE

Our coast has immense value to the people of South Africa. It is beautiful and productive. It is a special national heritage. But few people appreciate the incredible opportunities our coast offers to improve the well-being of current and future generations. The coast provides:

• Goods and services essential to meeting basic needs and improving the quality of life of millions of South Africans. It provides food, a place to live, work and relax, and a gateway to the world. The total value of these goods and services is estimated to be about R179 billion annually.
• Economic opportunities for improving South Africa's development prospects, particularly for regions marginalised under the apartheid system.

Maintaining the diversity, health and productivity of our coast is central to realising and sustaining these economic and social benefits. Doing so requires an understanding of the coastal system. Our coast is:

• A complex natural system. It is a place of many interactions. It is the meeting place of the land and sea – where freshwater and seawater mix. It is a place of high energy and change – where tides, currents, winds and waves shape and reshape the shoreline. It is a place rich in landforms – reefs, beaches, dunes, rocky headlands, rivers and wetlands. It is a place of diverse life-forms – of seals, turtles, dolphins, fish, seabirds and a range of coastal plants, all of which make up varied ecosystems. It is rich in natural resources.
• A national heritage, which must be carefully managed. It is a public asset that supports a variety of human activities (see Figure 1). It is subject to intense and growing demands. But coastal resources are finite, and vulnerable to over-use and degradation. The coast can also be an unforgiving place, in which inappropriate decisions can expose human life and property to high risks. It nonetheless offers enormous opportunities for future development.

A radical departure from current coastal management efforts is required if South Africans are to realise and sustain the goods and services and development opportunities that the coast provides. This is not a simple task. But given the potential, it is a task well worth undertaking. There is a need to promote:

• A more co-ordinated and integrated coastal management approach. Different human uses of coastal resources are inter-dependent. These uses affect each other and the overall benefits that can be gained from the coast. Co-ordinated and integrated management is needed to ensure that the positive benefits of different human uses are realised in the interests of all South Africans. Our coast should therefore be managed in an holistic way as a system, not as a range of distinct sectors. Coastal management should also take a long-term view.
• More efficient, effective and co-operative governance, based on partnerships between Government, civil society and the private sector. Current legal and institutional arrangements for coastal management are complicated and fragmented. Coastal management capacity needs to be built to achieve the developmental potential of the coast. Proactive guidance is needed from Government to promote a visionary, practical and focused management process that fosters self-regulation and shared responsibility for our special coastal heritage.

Our generation must articulate a vision for the coast and establish the institutional and legal arrangements that will enable us to chart a course of sustainable coastal development. A Coastal Policy is needed to chart this course, to lead us into the 21^st century.

The next section explores what is meant by the phrase "sustainable coastal development".

WHAT IS SUSTAINABLE COASTAL DEVELOPMENT?

Broadly defined, the phrase sustainable development means: meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Though the concept of sustainable development is the subject of academic debate, it is widely seen as an important goal for public policy in the international and local context. Given this fact, and based on input from a wide range of interested and affected parties, including leaders in the field of coastal management in South Africa, the proposed theme and focus for this Coastal Policy is sustainable coastal development. The term is used to convey the following meaning:

• Development is central to meeting basic needs and improving the quality of life of all South Africans. Development in this broad sense relates to economic concerns, such as decreasing poverty and promoting investment, employment and wealth creation, and to social concerns such as education, community relations and empowerment.
• Sustainable means enduring or long-lasting. Coastal ecosystems provide the foundation for coastal development. To be sustainable, the nature and scale of coastal development must not exceed the capacity of coastal ecosystems to support human activities.
• Sustainable coastal development draws attention to the complex inter-connections between the biophysical, economic, cultural, social and political components that make up the coastal system. It draws attention to the "systems" character of coastal management, and highlights the complex inter-connections between the human and natural systems of the coast. It also draws attention to the important issue of equity within and between generations, and to the relationships between humans and other species. The concept focuses attention on the inter-connections between ecological integrity, basic needs and equity, as well as the relationship between population growth, wealth and poverty. It highlights the challenge of decision-making under conditions of uncertainty and makes explicit the linkage between science and public policy.

Sustainable coastal development should not, however, be thought of as an "end state". Rather, it is an ideal towards which all South Africans should strive. A policy promoting sustainable coastal development means much more than simply maintaining the status quo. It is neither a "green" policy nor a "development at any cost" policy. Rather, it aims to promote the economic and social benefits linked to coastal ecosystems, in the interests of all South Africans.

In summary, sustainable coastal development aims to enhance the capacity of current and future generations to realise their human potential, within the context of maintaining diverse, healthy and productive coastal ecosystems, in a manner that minimises harm to other life-forms.

Public policy is needed to work towards the ideal of sustainable coastal development. The next section outlines the nature of public policy.

WHAT IS PUBLIC POLICY?

Simply put, public policy is a deliberate course of action, based on publicly held values. There are three main components to this definition: Firstly, "deliberate" implies a point of departure (what is the concern or issue for which policy is needed?) and an outcome (what end result is desired?). Secondly, "course of action" implies action (what needs to be done?) and actors (who needs to do it?). Thirdly, public values are central to the process of policy formulation and implementation.

Public policy should therefore:

• Address issues of public concern
• Be based upon accepted, publicly held values
• Define a vision, principles, goals and objectives
• Specify the institutional arrangements needed to achieve the desired outcome.

A public policy is the framework for helping society move from a point of departure (i.e., coastal issues of public concern) toward a common destination (i.e., a shared vision of the future of our coast).

Coastal issues Þ Public Policy gets us to Þ Shared Vision

Formulating and implementing a public policy aimed at realising the ideal of sustainable coastal development requires proactive guidance from Government.

THE NEED FOR PROACTIVE GUIDANCE FROM GOVERNMENT

Harnessing and sustaining the development potential of our coast will require a significant change in thinking about how to plan and manage the development process. To facilitate this change, proactive policy guidance is required from Government to assist both the public and private sectors to achieve long-term, economically efficient, socially equitable and ecologically sound coastal development.

A proactive Coastal Policy is needed to promote harmony between sectoral policies, to strengthen institutional arrangements, to promote co-ordination and integration of plans and investment strategies, and to strengthen the human resource base for coastal management. A Coastal Policy is the most effective means for Government to provide leadership and guidance for sustainable coastal development. Such a policy will make it possible to, among other things:

• Maintain the diversity, health and productivity of our coast
• Retain the aesthetic, cultural, educational, scientific and spiritual value of our coast
• Proactively identify and optimise economic development opportunities
• Distribute the benefits from sustainable coastal development
• Enhance food security
• Create new employment opportunities
• Expand, diversify and create a more robust economy
• Make more effective use of underdeveloped resources
• Improve coastal planning and management practices.

It is vital for the Government to assume a positive and proactive leadership role in:

• Raising coastal education and awareness among different economic sectors about their common dependence on maintaining the diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems.
• Promoting co-operative governance and public-private partnerships, by demonstrating that it is in the interest of public organisations and other stakeholders to work together to maintain the functions of coastal ecosystems, as a means of ensuring the continuous supply of coastal services.
• Promoting co-ordinated and integrated planning and management, so that there is a tangible shift away from sectoral approaches, where the emphasis is placed on maximising single purpose and exclusive use of areas and resources, towards maintaining the functions that generate the goods and services that sustain the coastal economy.
• Optimising benefits through multiple use of coastal resources, by integrating the policies, plans and management strategies of different economic activities.
• Promoting sustainable coastal development, by raising standards of development to promote long-term, economically efficient, socially equitable and ecologically sound coastal development.

The benefits derived from the adoption of an holistic but strategic Coastal Policy, which addresses the needs and aspirations of the South African people, will far outweigh the difficulties and costs involved in its formulation and implementation. The result will be lasting economic, social and ecological benefits. It will also lead to additional support for related initiatives aimed at developing more equitable and sustainable forms of national, provincial and local development.

In order to prepare a Coastal Policy that promotes sustainable coastal development, it is essential to understand the nature of the coast, its value, and the nature of coastal management. Part A of this document explores these topics. It is also imperative to understand the characteristics of South Africa's coast, and to reflect on the issues of concern to coastal communities and interested and affected parties. Part B provides an overview of these topics.

[ Top ]

Section A: Managing the Coast

 

Chapter 1: What is the Coast?

This chapter explores the nature of the coast and answers the following two questions:

• What are the boundaries of our coast?
• What are the components of our coast?

INTRODUCTION

In order to formulate a Coastal Policy, a common understanding of the coastal system needs to be developed. In particular, its boundaries need to be defined and the components of the coastal system identified.

WHAT ARE THE BOUNDARIES OF OUR COAST?

In essence, our coast is made up of the land that is affected by being near to the sea and the sea that is affected by being near to the land. Our coast is thus a distinct but limited spatial area that gets its character mainly from the direct interaction between land and sea. Surrounding this area of direct interaction are areas of indirect influence, extending from inland mountain catchment areas to the Exclusive Economic Zone and beyond. Our coast is thus an area with a landward and a seaward boundary that includes:

• Coastal waters, which extend from the low water mark into the sea, up to the point where it is no longer influenced by land and associated activities.
• The coastline or sea-shore, which is the area between the low and high water marks.
• Coastlands, which are inland areas above the high water mark that have an influence on, or are influenced by coastal waters.

Defining coastal boundaries is a challenge faced by all countries developing and implementing coastal management programmes. Only a few countries define coastal boundaries uniformly throughout the nation (see Table 1). Instead, national coastal policies often provide broad guidelines under which provinces and districts define specific coastal boundaries, depending on their management goals. For example, regulatory programmes usually define a narrow coastal zone within which to apply permit procedures, and a larger area for planning purposes. It is generally accepted that multiple definitions of the coast should be used to fulfil different tasks, at different spatial and time scales.

Table 1: Landward and Seaward Boundaries

Landward boundaries (% of 48 countries)		Seaward boundaries (% of 48 countries)
up to 100m	4%	Mean low tide	2%
100 – 500m	8%	3 nautical miles	6%
500 – 1 000m	4%	12 nautical miles	21%
1 – 10km	10%	Edge of continental shelf	2%
Local Government Jurisdiction	4%	Exclusive Economic Zone	8%
Watershed	6%	Arbitrary offshore distance	17%
Varies according to issue	38%	Varies according to issue	23%
Not yet determined	19%	Not yet determined	15%
Other	7%	Other	6%

(Based on Cicin-Sain and Knecht 1998)

In South Africa, a range of boundaries is applicable to coastal management. For example, in the mid-1980s, an effort was made to introduce a nation-wide permitting process for development proposals within 1 000 metres of the high water mark. This effort was subsequently withdrawn because it proved to be impractical and ineffective. The Sea Shore Act states that the State President "owns" the sea within territorial waters and the sea-shore (between the low and high water marks) on behalf of the people of South Africa. A number of other boundary definitions, prescribed in various conventions, laws, policies and management practices, are highlighted in Figure 2.

Note: Some of these boundary definitions are open to different interpretations.

One of the major challenges faced in coastal management relates to the overlap between administrative boundaries (e.g., local authority jurisdictions) and legislative boundaries (e.g., the Sea Shore Act). This overlap is made worse by the fact that such boundaries do not coincide with those of coastal ecosystems. For example, fish do not stay within national and provincial borders, and inland activities affect water quality in rivers that flow into estuaries and out to sea.

The current trend is to manage the coast on the basis of "issue-by-issue" boundary definitions. So the boundaries will change, depending on what the actual issue is. For example, the boundary relevant to managing mussel harvesting is narrow, mostly in the inter-tidal area. Maintaining water quality in an estuary, however, requires management of an area from an inland mountain catchment down to the sea. Controlling development in sensitive dune areas may require permit approval based on a defined "set-back" line, say 1 000m from the high water mark. These examples illustrate how the relevant management areas and associated boundaries vary depending on the nature of the issues.

For the purposes of this Green Paper, the boundaries of the coast are seen to extend as far landwards, and as far seawards, as is necessary for effective coastal management. The final Coastal Policy will need to provide clarity on how the coast should be defined for dealing with different issues.

Given this broad definition, the next section outlines the main components of the coast.

WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS OF OUR COAST?

People are attracted to our coast because of the many different opportunities it offers through its rich natural resources, beauty and economic potential. Realising and sustaining these benefits and opportunities requires us to understand and manage the coast as a complex, dynamic and inter-connected system. Our coast can be thought of as:

• An economic place, where a range of commercial, recreational and subsistence activities take place, and which offers tremendous potential for future economic development.
• A social place, where people from diverse cultures meet, a place for enjoyment and relaxation, a place of spiritual value and peace. It is an important link between the people of South Africa and the rest of the world.
• A biophysical place, where land, sea and air meet and inter-connect, and where reefs, beaches, dunes, rocky headlands and wetlands support a rich collection of distinctly coastal plants and animals.

How do these components of the coast relate to one another? Simply put, most of the social and economic components of the coastal system are dependent on maintaining the diversity, health and productivity of the biophysical component. Figure 3 outlines these components of the coast.

The coast can also be thought of in terms of the range of benefits it provides to human users. Coastal processes and ecosystems (including the flows of energy, materials, nutrients and water that sustain coastal ecosystems) generate a range of goods and services (including food, shelter, property with sea-views and protection from storms). These goods and services provide direct and indirect benefits to human users who live, work and relax at the coast.

Coastal resources can be defined as natural and human-produced goods and services that are either dependent on the coast for their existence or whose value is considerably enhanced by their location at the coast. For example, a beachfront holiday resort is located at the coast. This location is valuable because visitors enjoy benefits from easy access to the beach. Activities in the area around such a resort can affect these benefits.

Activities far out to sea, literally out of sight of land, such as an oil-spill disaster, can also affect these benefits. Activities far inland, out of sight of the sea, such as poor farming practices in a mountain catchment area, can result in silted rivers and damaged river mouths.

Our coast supports multiple forms of use by many different users. Different user groups can affect each other directly. For example, surfers, bathers and shore anglers may compete for space on the beach and in the surf zone.

Coastal users can also affect one another indirectly through their impact on the ability of coastal ecosystems to sustain the flow of goods and services. For example, a bridge across a river that restricts water flow may alter the ability of an estuary to function effectively as a nursery for marine fish, thereby negatively affecting fish stocks and commercial fishing industries.

It is vital to recognise that human activities impact on coastal processes and ecosystems and consequently affect the flow of goods and services. To sustain the flow of goods and services, the diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems must be maintained. All components of the coast — biophysical, social and economic — must be managed on a co-ordinated and integrated basis. The coast must be managed as a system.

The Coastal System

The coastal system can be divided into the following interlinked components:

• Physical processes include major energy, material, water and nutrient flows. These include the movement of nutrients from the deep ocean to shallower waters accessible to fish, the input of nutrients from rivers and estuaries into the sea, and the flow of the sun's energy that is taken up by plants which animals might eat.
• Ecosystems are systems of plants and animals interacting with each other and with the non-living components of their environment. Coastal ecosystems, such as estuaries and coastal wetlands, beaches, dunes and coastal forests, reflect geographical differences in the interaction of physical processes and plants and animals.
• Functions are built-in ecosystem features that are either essential to the health and productivity of coastal ecosystems, or support other ecosystems and maintain the flow of goods and services that sustains human activities. For example, coastal waters can absorb wastes, wetlands can purify water and coastal vegetation can help retain soil.
• Goods and services are generated by ecosystem functions. Goods (such as fish, oil, gas and minerals) and services (such as absorption of human waste, natural defence against storm and waves, recreational opportunities and transportation) have an economic value.
• Users are the people who actually benefit from the goods and services, for example the diamond mining industry, artisanal fishers, coastal residents and surfers.

These components of the coastal system do not exist in isolation from each other. Physical processes interact with plants and animals to form distinct ecosystems, which fulfil various functions and provides goods and services to other users. User activities affect the ability of coastal ecosystems to continue providing goods and services to other users. It is for this reason that the conflict often arises. Consequently, the coast must be managed as a system if we are to realise and sustain the tremendous benefits and development opportunities it provides.

This chapter has examined the nature of the coast – its boundaries and main components. The next chapter explores the value of the goods and services provided by coastal ecosystems.

[ Top ]

Chapter 2: What is the Value of our Coast?

This chapter provides an estimate of the value of coastal goods and services. It explores the following topics:

• The supply of coastal services
• The value of our coastal services
• The demand for coastal services
• Realising coastal benefits.

INTRODUCTION

This chapter summarises the benefits provided by the coast and attempts to place a monetary value on the services provided by coastal ecosystems.

Since many ecosystem services are not bought and sold in commercial markets, and are not given monetary values like other economic services and manufactured capital, they are often ignored in decision-making.

The purpose of this valuation is to provide a conservative estimate of the possible order of magnitude of the value of coastal services, in a form that can be compared with other, more familiar monetary values. Please note that the values presented here are informed but speculative estimates. Such estimates are strongly contested by some people.

At the very least, this valuation highlights the importance of coastal services to the South African economy, and draws attention to the enormous benefits South Africans derive from coastal ecosystems. The obvious and overwhelming conclusion drawn from this valuation is that coastal management efforts are needed to sustain the flow of coastal services in the interests of current and future generations.

Calculating the Value of our Coastal Services

Boundary definition: For the purpose of this valuation, the coast is defined as the region 60 km from the high water mark to the continental shelf (see Figure 2).

Available statistics: As far as possible, local statistics were used in this valuation. There are, however, many gaps in available knowledge, particularly with regard to the value of coastal services that are not bought or sold. In a number of such instances, average estimates based on international data were used to provide a more complete picture.

A conservative estimate: The valuation is a conservative estimate, because large gaps in available information made it impossible to value numerous coastal ecosystem services.

Illustrative purpose: Many of the values are speculative and serve primarily to illustrate the possible order of magnitude of the value of South Africa's coastal services.

The next section explores the services that the coast provides.

THE SUPPLY OF COASTAL SERVICES

Our coast is made up of a wide variety of ecosystems. They are the "factories" providing benefits to coastal communities and South Africa as a whole. A distinction can be made between:

• Direct benefits. These are goods that are consumed, such as fish, or that are used, such as kelp used in the industrial production of fertilisers. Other direct benefits include coastal tourism, diamond and titanium mining and timber harvesting.
• Indirect benefits. These include the waste absorbing and water purification services provided by coastal ecosystems. These services provide an indirect but substantial cost saving to coastal communities.

The next section provides an estimate of the value of the direct and indirect benefits provided by coastal services.

THE VALUE OF OUR COASTAL SERVICES

Human activities along the coast are sustained by the services provided by coastal ecosystems. The value of coastal ecosystems in meeting basic needs and improving the welfare of South Africans is enormous.

The values presented here do not reflect the intangible benefits many people derive from the coast as a place of spiritual significance, for renewal, peace and relaxation. In addition, the coast provides many educational, scientific and cultural services, the financial value of which is not easy to estimate. But there is general recognition that our coast plays an important role in providing such services and that we would be much poorer without them.

The Total Value of our Coastal Services

The total value of coastal ecosystem services is conservatively estimated to be about R179 billion per year, which is equivalent to about 37% of South Africa's Gross Domestic Product (R480 billion). This amount is made up of services in the following areas:

• From 60km inland to the high water mark, the estimated value is R28 billion per year
• From the high water mark to the continental shelf, this value is R151 billion per year.

These high figures show that the benefits gained from the coast make an enormous contribution to the people of South Africa, and provide the cornerstone for the economic development and well-being of coastal communities.

The Value of Direct Benefits

The value of direct benefits provided by coastal ecosystems is estimated to be at least R44 billion per year, as outlined in Table 2.

The Value of Indirect Benefits

The value of indirect benefits provided by coastal ecosystems is estimated to be at least R134 billion per year, as outlined in Table 3.

Table 2: Estimated Value of Direct Benefits Provided by Coastal Ecosystems

Services	Examples of opportunities and activities	Financial benefits (millions of Rands p.a.)
Subsistence food production	Line fishing, inter-tidal collecting, beach and seine netting, coastal agriculture	1 121
Commercial food production	Commercial fishing and agriculture	11 070
Raw materials	Diamond and titanium mining	3 752
Transportation	Ports and harbours	4 580
Recreation	Boating, sport-fishing, shore-beach recreation, diving	1 715
Tourism	International and national visitors to the coast	13 500
Aesthetic value	Turnover of property with a sea-view	9 075
Waste disposal	Waste disposal into coastal waters	17
TOTAL		44 830

Table 3: Estimated Value of Indirect Benefits Provided by Coastal Ecosystems

Services	Examples of opportunities and activities	Financial benefits (millions of Rands p.a.)
Erosion control	Damage protection from storms, wave action and wind	715
Waste treatment	Waste assimilation, detoxification and recycling by coastal wetlands, forests and grasslands	3 875
Soil formation	Unique coastal soils, derived from sediment accumulation	44
Water regulation and supply	Coastal forests and grasslands	151
Nutrient cycling	Upwelling food for fish from deep in ocean	125 510
Biological control	Maintaining the balance and diversity of plants and animals	1 983
Habitats	Places where plants and animals live	43
Pollination	Horticultural crops within 60 km of high water mark	1 114
Climate regulation	Maintaining normal climate patterns	476
Genetic resources	Medical and agricultural uses of plants and animals	86
Gas regulation	Oxygen and carbon cycles	311
Existence value	Unique plants and animals	4
TOTAL		134 312

This section has looked at the value of services provided by coastal ecosystems. The next section goes on to explore the demand for these services.

THE DEMAND FOR COASTAL SERVICES

Key characteristics of the South African coast include its relatively high concentration of population, particularly on the east coast, its expanding coastal cities and the diversity of economic activities. The demand for coastal services is already intense and is growing rapidly.

In coastal cities there is high demand for a wide range of coastal services, especially where industry, high-density residential areas, commercial centres and harbours are located.

In less developed coastal regions, there is a relatively lower level of demand for a much narrower range of services. But the pressure on particular resources can be very intense in some rural areas, such as subsistence harvesting of mussels or property development around estuaries.

In both the urban and rural context, many different services are frequently demanded from the same coastal ecosystem. The intensity and diversity of demands placed on coastal ecosystems will continue to increase as the South African population grows and more people move to the coast. The challenge is to ensure that we optimise these benefits, both now and into the future.

REALISING COASTAL BENEFITS

Coastal ecosystems are capable of sustaining more than one economic activity at the same time. For example, Cape Town's Victoria & Alfred Waterfront supports an active port, recreational boating, and a range of shopping and recreational activities for local and international visitors. Multiple use of coastal ecosystems can provide more benefits than a single use, which may exclude other sustainable activities. We must maintain the diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems if we are to realise and sustain these benefits. If we effectively manage coastal ecosystems, our coast will provide the foundation for meeting basic needs and improving the quality of life of millions of South Africans.

The last two chapters have considered the nature of the coast and explored the value of coastal services. The next chapter focuses on the subject of coastal management.

[ Top ]

Chapter 3: What is Coastal Management?

This chapter explores the nature and role of coastal management, and covers the following topics:

• Matching supply and demand
• Towards integrated coastal management.

INTRODUCTION

The last chapter showed that there is a growing demand for the services provided by coastal ecosystems. The main task of coastal management relates to the need to match the demand for coastal services with the supply of such services.

MATCHING DEMAND AND SUPPLY

Our coast is a multiple-use system with a variety of users benefiting from the many available services. Using an ecosystem for one use only is likely to limit the overall benefits to the South African economy. Coastal resources are often used in this narrow way, however, and this situation is made worse by fragmented and uncoordinated management. As a consequence, the demand for coastal services is often greater than the capacity of coastal ecosystems to supply such services. This situation is likely to result in coastal resources being over-exploited or damaged. Negative impacts result as demands are met by uncontrolled withdrawal of services. Coastal ecosystems then become degraded, reducing their ability to sustain the flow of services. For example:

• Limited public access. In some areas, mining companies have exclusive access to areas of the coast. This limits physical access for other sectors that wish to use alternative ecosystem services, such as harvesting marine organisms or tourism and recreational activities.
• Inappropriate development. Coastal dunes play a vital role in protecting the coastline against wind and waves. But property developers aim to get as close to the beach as possible, often destroying dune vegetation, to obtain a sea-view. This ignores the coastline protection service provided by dune ecosystems. Inappropriately located structures are exposed to erosion and high risk from coastal processes, such as storms. Substantial repair and maintenance costs can then result, and these are frequently borne by other taxpayers. A range of other problems can also result, such as problems of wind-blown sand experienced by neighbours, loss of scenic value and lost opportunities for other developers.
• Pollution. Urban stormwater runoff can cause bacterial contamination of coastal waters, reducing bathing, surfing and associated recreational and tourism opportunities.

As the population grows and the demand for coastal services increases, these impacts are likely to have a negative effect on the supply of coastal services and thus the overall benefits to users. In a multiple-use system, it is not wise to make decisions on the basis of the benefits gained by a single user, when other potential users could also be gaining.

The inter-dependence between users and uses of coastal services requires a dedicated, co-ordinated and integrated approach to coastal management. Such an approach will help to maintain the health of coastal ecosystems and the flow of services upon which coastal communities depend. It is only in this way that the full potential of coastal ecosystems will be realised and sustained.

The next section explores the concept of integrated coastal management.

TOWARDS INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT

A recent United Nations report defines coastal management as:

A continuous and dynamic process that unites Government and the community, science and management, sectoral and public interests in preparing and implementing an integrated plan for the protection and development of coastal ecosystems and resources.

It states that the goal of coastal management is:

… to improve the quality of life of human communities which depend on coastal resources, while maintaining the biological diversity and productivity of coastal ecosystems.

There is usually intense competition for coastal services. Human activities place different demands on coastal ecosystems, often resulting in disputes over appropriate patterns of use. Decisions about the appropriate balance between competing demands must be made continually, bearing in mind the range of possible consequences. Coastal management is the ordered process that allows these decisions to be made and implemented, and the results to be monitored, so as to promote sustainable coastal development.

A distinguishing feature of coastal management is the high level of integration it requires. Table 4 indicates that integration is required across geographic boundaries, time scales, sectors, political and institutional boundaries, disciplines, and across the policy, management, education and research arenas.
Traditionally in South Africa planning has been separated from management. Coastal management requires an integrated approach to planning and management, coupled with supporting activities and mechanisms.

1. Coastal planning refers to the ongoing process of analysing the coast in order to prepare plans to guide decision-makers about how to allocate and use coastal resources and where to locate different human activities on the coast.
2. Coastal planning provides the context for a range of coastal management activities that include:

• Development facilitation and assessment of coastal development proposals. This refers to promoting and/or restricting physical development within the framework of a coastal plan, where such a plan exists. Where no such plan exists, consideration should be given to the wider implications of the proposal.
• Day-to-day coastal resource management. This refers to the hands-on process of maintaining and restoring coastal resources where necessary or appropriate, and administering and regulating human activities which may have an impact on these resources.

Coastal management activities should be integrated with other management and development assessment processes, preferably into a single integrated development assessment procedure for all planning, environmental and developmental assessments.

3. Supporting activities and mechanisms include applied research, long-term monitoring, education, law, institutional capacity building, and finances.

Integrated coastal management thus involves a range of planning, management and support activities that must be co-ordinated in order to address issues of real concern. The process of coastal management involves policy formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluating the results, and, where appropriate, revising both the policy and implementation measures to ensure that the issues of concern are addressed.

Table 4: Types of Integration Required in Coastal Management

Geographic integration

All coastal systems are inter-connected, and no single organisation can have control over all or even most of the inputs and outputs from one part of the coast to another. Attention must therefore be given to the inter-connections between the land and sea environments, which can extend over vast distances.

Integration across time scales

The coast is significantly affected by the cumulative impact of many individual decisions made and actions taken by resource users and Government. Attention must therefore be given to the consequences of these decisions and actions and to the short-, medium-, and long-term implications of such decisions and actions.

Integration across sectors

There are a wide range of human activities at the coast, including agriculture, commerce, fishing, forestry, industry, military use, mining, nature reserves, recreational and residential development, subsistence resource use, tourism and transport infrastructure. Attention must therefore be given to "horizontal integration" of sectors traditionally seen to be separate, together with the associated Governmental agencies that influence planning and management of coastal systems and resources.

Political and institutional integration

A great challenge is posed by the fact that the boundaries of coastal ecosystems go beyond local, provincial and often national areas of authority. Attention must therefore be given to "vertical integration" between spheres of Government, from the local to international level, and to integration between institutions in Government, civil society and the private sector which influence the planning and management of coastal ecosystems and resources. Ideally, legislative and planning frameworks and development assessment procedures should be integrated.

Integration across disciplines

Coastal systems are multi-faceted, dynamic and complex. In addition, the consequences of coastal management decisions are often subject to considerable uncertainty. These characteristics make it difficult, if not impossible, to determine cause and effect relationships, and to predict accurately the potential impacts of human activities. Attention must therefore be given to integrating knowledge and understanding from the natural and social sciences, the humanities and the design professions (including engineering, planning and architecture). In addition, scientific research must be integrated with other sources of information, including the knowledge of coastal communities and users.

Integrating policy, management, education and research

Coastal management is a process that requires creative partnerships to be established between Government, civil society and the private sector. To manage coastal ecosystems and resources for the benefit of current and future generations, such partnerships will need to be based on the integration of a range of considerations, including policy, management, education and applied research.

Developing an integrated coastal management approach is not an easy task, and needs to be worked towards, progressively, over time. Such an approach is particularly difficult to initiate in the context of strongly entrenched sectoral management practices. Nonetheless, if we are to sustain the benefits provided by coastal ecosystems, there is a need to work towards integrated coastal management. First, attention needs to be drawn to the subject of coastal management. Then, awareness needs to be built around the subject. Dialogue needs to be fostered amongst the various role-players. Co-operation can then be promoted, followed by co-ordination of activities. Finally, integration can be realised.

The last three chapters have provided an introduction to the subject of coastal management. They have addressed the following questions: What is the coast?; What is the value of the coast?; and What is coastal management? This chapter has highlighted the challenge of matching supply and demand. It has drawn attention to the need to promote a dedicated, co-ordinated and ultimately integrated approach to coastal management. Doing so, however, will require a good understanding of the characteristics of our coast and the issues of concern. Part B of this document provides an overview of the South African coast. It also describes the coastal regions in more detail, and outlines issues identified through this programme to date.

[ Top ]

 

Section B: The South African Coast

Chapter 4: Our Coast in Context

This chapter gives a brief overview of coastal management experience in other countries, and looks at:

• The international context
• South Africa in the African context.

INTRODUCTION

This chapter briefly looks at the international context for coastal management and draws particular attention to the African context.

THE INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT

Two-thirds of the world's population live at or near the coast. By the year 2030, three-quarters of the world's population will be living at the coast. Each year, the world's coastal ecosystems provide about R70 billion to the global economy. The coast is a major generator of global economic benefits and opportunities, but is subject to intense and growing pressure.

As long as people have lived at the coast and used its resources, there has been some form of coastal management. Traditional societies that depend on coastal resources have had elaborate management systems that have often sustained coastal communities and resources for generations. But in many societies, particularly in more recent times, coastal management efforts have not been able to sustain the benefits that the coast provides.

The term "coastal management" came into common use with the implementation of the United States Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972. The Act recognised that a sectoral management approach, focusing on individual resources such as fisheries, or activities such as transport, was not working. A new coastal management approach was needed. The Act provided coastal states with incentives to prepare and implement integrated plans focused on selected issues of national and local significance. Since then, the concept of coastal management has been refined and it has been applied to many different situations in countries around the world.

Changes in Coastal Management since the 1970s

• A shift from a resource-centred approach to a people-centred approach: Coastal management is increasingly concerned with governance issues rather than exclusively technical considerations.
• The perceived role of science has shifted from "driving" the policy process to informing the process: The role of science is increasingly seen to be one of informing policy debates and clarifying options for and the implications of different policies.
• A shift from a "restoration and mitigation" approach to an "anticipatory and precautionary" approach: This shift has been prompted by the experience of cumulative impacts of individually insignificant actions, the high cost and frequent failure of restoration efforts, and the high degree of uncertainty in coastal decision making.
• Expansion of the tools used to achieve coastal management objectives: A wider range of regulatory and non-regulatory tools is now used in coastal management. There is greater emphasis on proactive and co-operative approaches, with regulation and enforcement used increasingly as a last resort.

Many international treaties and regional agreements have addressed the subject of coastal management in the last few decades. South Africa is a party to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), which are the major international frameworks guiding nations in governing coasts. The Law of the Sea Convention establishes the rights and duties of nations within the 200 nautical mile Exclusive Economic Zone. In 1992, UNCED built on this legislative framework, providing further guidance to nations by emphasising the need for sustainable development and integrated management of the coast. There are now about 150 integrated coastal management efforts in over 60 coastal states around the world. Increasingly, developing countries are using integrated coastal management as a distinct management approach to address coastal challenges.

SOUTH AFRICA IN THE AFRICAN CONTEXT

The coast makes an enormous contribution to the economic and social well-being of people in Africa. It contributes over R4 000 billion to the African economy. Thirty eight of continental Africa's 53 independent states are coastal states, and about 18% of Africa's population live within 60km of the coast. South Africa's coast supports about 30% of its population, and our coast has one of the highest coastal population densities in Africa about 81/km², compared to the average African density of 55/km².

In 1985, western Indian Ocean nations signed the Eastern African Regional Seas Action Plan and a number of protocols to promote regional co-operation in order to improve management of the marine and coastal environment. In 1993, ministers from throughout Eastern Africa convened in Arusha, Tanzania, and signed a resolution stating their commitment to sustainable coastal development and management. In 1996, a second ministerial meeting was held in the Seychelles. Participants assessed their own progress in meeting the goals set forth in the Arusha resolution, re-confirmed their commitment to coastal management, and developed an agenda for progress over the next three years. For the first time, South Africa participated in this regional forum.

These ministerial meetings resulted in several regional integrated coastal management activities and a number of workshops. More recently, in July 1998, South Africa participated in a pan-African conference on sustainable integrated coastal management. The conference was held in Maputo and is part of the ongoing region-wide effort to promote better coastal management. A consistent and key recommendation which emerged from these meetings and workshops is the need for countries to develop a national policy for integrated coastal management. Currently, several African nations — Mozambique, Tanzania and South Africa — are undertaking national coastal policy initiatives.

Our Coastal Policy initiative has much to learn from, and hopefully contribute to, the experiences elsewhere in Africa and beyond. Effective integrated coastal management requires a sound understanding of the characteristics of the South African coast.

The next chapter presents an overview of our coast.

[ Top ]

Chapter 5: An Overview of our Coast

This chapter provides an overview of South Africa's coast in terms of the following factors:

• The biophysical setting
• Natural resources
• The social setting
• Human settlement
• The economic setting
• The legal and institutional setting.

INTRODUCTION

Our coast extends for about 3 000 km from the border of Namibia to Mozambique. It links the east and west coasts of Africa and connects our continent to the Indian, Atlantic and vast Southern Oceans. Historically, it is the place where the original inhabitants first met the European settlers and were displaced by them. To this day, our coast is a place to draw from the riches of the sea and conduct trade with distant lands, as well as being a special place to live, work and relax.

Our coast is very diverse, in terms of a number of factors – its biophysical setting, natural resources, social setting, human settlement patterns, and its economic, institutional and legal setting. This chapter outlines the main characteristics of each of these factors.

THE BIOPHYSICAL SETTING

The character of our coast is shaped by its location at the southern tip of Africa. This setting determines the climatological, geological, oceanographic, hydrological and biological character of our coast.

Climate, currents and sediment movement

Large-scale atmospheric systems over southern Africa and the Atlantic, Indian and Southern Oceans control the patterns of weather and climate. The west coast is characterised by southerly winds and low rainfall. The south-west coast is subject to southerly winds in summer and rain-bearing westerly winds in winter. In contrast, the east coast experiences good rainfall, mostly in summer. Rainfall generally increases along the east coast as one moves north from East London to Mozambique (800 to 1 300 mm). Along the west coast, rainfall decreases as one moves north from Cape Town to Namibia (greater than 700 mm to less than 100 mm). South coast rainfall is moderate and variable (400 to 1 000 mm), with a maximum in the Garden Route area which experiences year-round rainfall (see Figure 4).

The oceanic setting of South Africa is strongly influenced by the Agulhas Current and the Benguela Current System (see Figure 5). The eastern shores are washed by the warm, nutrient-poor waters of the Agulhas Current that flows south from tropical latitudes off Mozambique and Madagascar. In contrast, the western shores are washed by cold, nutrient-rich waters drawn up (referred to as upwelling) from deeper layers in the sea. This upwelling results from southerly winds blowing parallel to the coastline. These waters support highly productive marine systems and are the centre of South Africa's fishing industry. The east-west contrast is seen in the 7oC difference between the average annual temperature of Port Nolloth and Durban – both located at similar latitudes.

The cold coastal waters do not evaporate easily because of the large-scale stable climatic weather patterns, which result in the west coast receiving very little rainfall. Average annual rainfall at Port Nolloth (60 mm) is a tiny fraction of that at Durban (1 100 mm). Along the south coast, upwelling is patchy and occurs irregularly under easterly winds. The Agulhas Current follows the edge of the continental shelf and is situated far offshore of the south coast. Coastal waters in this region alternate between warm Agulhas Current water and cold upwelled water.

Most of our coast has a moderate (1-2 m) to high (2-3 m) wave energy environment, and experiences a predominantly south-westerly swell direction. The result is an overall northwards drift along the shores of both the west and east coasts. This drift transports between one and two million tons of sediment past any given point on either coast each year. About 1 700 km of our coast is made up of sandy beaches and 1 300 km are either rocky or mixed rock and sand shores.

Rivers, Estuaries and Islands

Our coast is also strongly influenced by rivers that bring water, sediments, nutrients and pollutants to the coast. Along the east coast, short, strong and fast-flowing rivers drain the steep slopes. East of Port Elizabeth, these rivers carry large silt loads, in excess of 400 tons of sediment per km2 per year. West of Port Elizabeth, most rivers drain sandstone catchments and carry much smaller silt loads, typically about 150 tons per km2 per year (note that some larger catchments, such as the Sundays and Gamtoos, have sediment yields similar to those of KwaZulu-Natal). Along the west coast, the low rainfall and flat land result in few rivers that flow all year round. The largest river, the Orange, drains half of the country, including the mining and industrial heartland of the Gauteng area, and enters the sea at the border of Namibia. There are no large rivers flowing south into South Africa from neighbouring states. But there are a few large rivers that flow from South Africa to enter the sea in Mozambique (e.g., Nkomati and Limpopo).

Our coast has 343 estuaries. Estuaries are river systems that have, or can have, contact with the sea. These are distributed along the coast as shown in Table 5.

Table 5: South Africa's Estuaries

Namibia to Olifants River (407km)	9 estuaries
Olifants River to Berg River (137km)	5 estuaries
Berg River to Cape Agulhas (635km)	36 estuaries
Cape Agulhas to Cape Padrone (815km)	62 estuaries
Cape Padrone to Mtunzini (745 km)	225 estuaries
Mtunzini to Mozambique (267km)	6 estuaries
TOTAL	343 estuaries

(After Heydorn 1989)

The total area of estuaries in South Africa is about 600 km², of which about 400 km² is along the 570 km KwaZulu-Natal coast. Variations in climate, topography and catchment geology give rise to a wide variety of estuary types in South Africa.

South Africa has jurisdiction over 21 islands. Most of the islands occur off the west coast near Saldanha and in False Bay, with a cluster of six islands in the vicinity of Port Elizabeth. Two islands, Marion and Prince Edward Islands, are some 2 000 km south of Cape Town.

The general physical setting of South Africa results in striking differences in the nature of the east, south and west coasts, and gives rise to a rich and varied set of natural resources.

Flora and fauna

The nature of the predominant climatic systems, sea surface temperature, geographic location and topography directly affect a region's temperature, humidity and rainfall. These physical factors influence the distribution of plants and animals along the coast. Flora and fauna have been classified, according to their similarities, into three biogeographical regions – the cool temperate region on the west coast, the warm temperate south coast between Cape Point and East London and the sub-tropical east coast which extends up to Mozambique. In broad terms, plants and animals are distributed according to the distinctive physical characteristics of the three biogeographic regions. Figure 6 shows the gradual transition from the dry succulent Karoo on the west coast to the moist coastal bushveld on the east coast. The west coast marine environment is characterised by cold upwelling waters and has low species diversity and large populations of some species.

For example, the seal colony at Kleinsee is reported to be the largest mainland seal colony in the world. Desert conditions along this section of coast result in sandy nutrient-poor soils and sparse succulent Karoo vegetation.

The south coast is a transition region between the cool dry west coast and the warm moist east coast, and shows characteristics of both areas. The marine environment has a high biological diversity and moderate productivity. The landward environment is dominated, especially in the Western Cape, by the fynbos kingdom, which is the smallest and yet most diverse of the five plant kingdoms in the world. Fynbos is found between the south-western Cape up to about Port Elizabeth. Coastal vegetation for most of the rest of the south coast can broadly be described as a mix of thicket, savannah and grassland.

The east coast becomes increasingly warm, humid and tropical northwards, and is characterised in both the marine and land environments by increasing species diversity and smaller populations. The Hibiscus Coast has the highest number of endemic tree species along the coast. The northern east coast has over 70% of the total South African coastal dune population of vertebrate species (amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals).This region supports a range of savannah and coastal bushveld, with an increasing amount of sub-tropical vegetation towards Mozambique.

NATURAL RESOURCES

Key natural resources provided by our coast include:

Fisheries. Broadly speaking, the west coast and the western parts of the south coast are the centre of the commercial fisheries, with catches of hake, pilchard, anchovy, lobster and abalone. On the east coast, line-fishing (both commercial and recreational) is more important, and a wider range of species is harvested. In northern KwaZulu-Natal and on the Wild Coast, there is subsistence harvesting of coastal resources.

Agriculture. Our coast provides significant opportunities for agriculture, with generally poor but variable soils on the west coast and rich soils on the east coast. The coast also provides some potential for mariculture (i.e., "farming" marine organisms such as fish, prawns or abalone). Our coastal waters have good water quality and nutrient supply, but there are a limited number of sheltered bays for large-scale activities in the sea. Land-based mariculture offers potential, particularly in the south-western Cape. But marketing some of the products has proved to be challenging in the past.

Mineral resources. Our coast offers significant mineral resources. Along northern parts of the west coast, diamonds are mined on the sea-shore and sea-bed.

On the east coast, and to a lesser extent along the west coast, heavy minerals, particularly titanium and zirconium, are extracted from beach and dune sands. Further deposits exist, including deposits along the Wild Coast. Other important minerals include offshore deposits of oil and gas, most notably giving rise to the Mossgas operation on the south coast. Smaller scale mining includes the extraction of salt from seawater and the mining of sand and pebbles for construction material or cement production.

Development opportunities. There are also tremendous development prospects for coastal tourism and recreational activities. The marketability of our coast is based on its scenic beauty, diversity and natural character, coupled with our mild climate, rich diversity of cultures and traditions and generally good infrastructure.

The biophysical characteristics and natural resources of our coast underpin a rich and varied social setting, with noteworthy regional differences in human settlement patterns, and economic, institutional and legal characteristics, as shown in Figure 7.

THE SOCIAL SETTING

Historical Context

The social setting of our coast can be understood in terms of the recent history of southern Africa. In the nineteenth century, colonial settlement of people from Europe, and the associated settlement of people from Asia, led to expanding cities at Durban, East London, Port Elizabeth and Cape Town. The middle and late twentieth century was characterised by apartheid, a policy that explicitly denied economic resources and social services to "homeland" regions and other designated black areas, leaving these regions undeveloped, with inadequate infrastructure. The economic centre of the country was concentrated in the interior, with the coastal cities playing a supportive role to the industrial and political centre of Gauteng. For the first time in our history, the transition to a democratic Government in 1994 allowed all South Africans to enjoy equal rights of access to and enjoyment of the coast.

Our coast is divided into four provinces –Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal. But much of the present social character of the coast can be related to previous political divisions: the white-governed Cape Province and Natal Province and the black homeland areas of Ciskei, Transkei and KwaZulu.

Population and Culture

At present, it is estimated that 30% of South Africa's population live within 60km of the coast. According to available 1996 census data, the South African population is about 38 million people. About 20% live in KwaZulu-Natal, 15.5% in the Eastern Cape, 11% in the Western Cape and 2% in the Northern Cape.

The coastal population can be divided into four main language groups. The west coast is mainly Afrikaans speaking. The Eastern Cape is mainly Xhosa speaking. And KwaZulu-Natal is mainly Zulu speaking. English is commonly spoken along the coast, particularly in urban centres. This simple breakdown does not convey the rich diversity of cultures and traditions amongst coastal communities.

Many of our coastal towns and cities are characterised by a variety of language and cultural backgrounds.

HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Settlement patterns reflect the spatial patterns of our society and economy. Largely determined by colonialism and apartheid, the spatial structure of our coast shows clear regional differences.

Cities and Towns

The four coastal cities of Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East London and Durban contain the major concentrations of coastal population, together over 6 million people. All four cities are experiencing rapid population growth and their populations are likely to double in the next 25 to 30 years. Population density is likely to increase, and urban areas will continue to expand along the coast as well as inland, particularly around Cape Town and Durban. These cities serve vast hinterlands and, with the exception of Durban, are far removed from the hub of economic activity in Gauteng.

Other emerging coastal cities include Saldanha Bay and Richards Bay. At the core of both of these developing cities is a specialised, export-based, deep-water port. Richards Bay is a growing urban centre of some 40 000 people on the KwaZulu-Natal north coast. Saldanha is considerably smaller, with about 17 000 people, on the west coast.

Settlement Patterns

Apart from these coastal cities, the coast is sparsely settled, particularly on the west coast. But during holiday seasons there is an influx of people to the coast and the population of coastal towns rises dramatically. Population density is highest on the KwaZulu-Natal coast. Many coastal towns serve as holiday, tourism and recreational destinations, and home-owners are absent most of the time.

A number of these towns evolved in association with fishing, agriculture or mining activities. But most of our coast can be characterised as rural. The percentage of the population living in rural areas in the coastal provinces is as follows: Eastern Cape 63%, KwaZulu-Natal 61%, Northern Cape 30%, and Western Cape 10%. The rural settlements include farmsteads associated with commercial agriculture, and traditional housing in former homeland areas of the Transkei, Ciskei and KwaZulu where communities live in a subsistence economy.

The boom in the outdoor recreation and tourism markets has led to intense interest in the development potential of the coast, including regions previously marginalised under apartheid. This trend needs to be seen in the light of the growth of coastal cities, which includes people relocating from the interior to coastal cities such as Cape Town. The social and human settlement characteristics of our coast are closely related to the economic characteristics.

THE ECONOMIC SETTING

Our coast is characterised by marked differences in the levels of economic activity, poverty and inequality. Coastal resources, however, provide considerable economic development potential.

Economic Activity, Poverty and Inequality

Our coastal regions display distinct differences in Gross Geographic Product (GGP) per person (see Figure 9). GGP is a measure of economic activity in an area. Broadly speaking, GGP per person is highest, more than R16 000 per year, in and around Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East London, Durban and Richards Bay. The lowest GGP per person, less than R200 per person per year, is found on the southern coast, and in the rural areas of the Eastern Cape and northern KwaZulu-Natal provinces.

South Africans have an average annual income per person of R7 200. Income per person varies between the coastal provinces: Western Cape R13 490, Northern Cape R9 971, KwaZulu-Natal R6 157 and Eastern Cape R4 151.

In international terms, South Africa can be classified as an "upper-middle-income country" in terms of income per person. But most households live in poverty or are vulnerable to becoming poor. Many households have inadequate access to education, health care, energy and clean water. The distribution of wealth and income in South Africa is amongst the most unequal in the world.

Various indicators can be used to measure poverty and inequality. According to the Human Development Index (HDI), the Western Cape, as well as the white and Indian population groups in South Africa as a whole, fall within the HDI range equivalent to "high human development". The HDI for the other coastal provinces, and the coloured and African population groups as a whole, as well as the HDI for South Africa as a whole, fall within the "medium human development" range. Based on a "poverty line" of a monthly household expenditure level of R353 per adult, the extent and distribution of poverty in South Africa is reflected in the following:

• Provincial poverty rates are highest for the Eastern Cape, at 71%, and are considerably lower for the Western Cape, at 28%.
• Of the coastal provinces, poverty is most severe in the Eastern Cape, with 78% of children living in poor households.
• People may be classified as "non-poor" in terms of income but they may be deprived in other ways. According to a South African "deprivation index" , 90% of people "missed" by the income poverty indicator, but deprived in other ways, are Africans from rural areas, mainly in KwaZulu-Natal.

Coastal Resources and Development Opportunities

These few examples highlight the extent to which the stimulation of economic activity, poverty reduction and sustainable job creation are fundamental challenges facing South Africa. Few realise the extent to which the coast can contribute to meeting these challenges. For example, coastal resources are important for:

Subsistence activities. Many South Africans are dependent on the coast for their subsistence. Activities include line-fishing, collection of inter-tidal organisms, beach and seine netting and agricultural practices. The value of subsistence activities is difficult to determine because of the limited information available. In addition, it is difficult to place a value on coastal resources used for subsistence purposes. For example, what value does a fish have to the family it feeds, when the family has no other source of food? Preliminary indications are that at least 3.6 million South Africans depend to a large degree on the food obtained from the coast through subsistence activities. The total value of these activities is at least R1.1 billion annually.

Trade. South Africa is engaging in trade relations with many countries in an increasingly globalised economy. Our coastal cities are a gateway to world trade through shipping and harbours. Over R140 billion of cargo is transported through South Africa's ports each year, generating over R4.2 billion in annual revenue. Most harbour traffic (75-80% by volume) goes through the ports of Durban and Richards Bay.

Tourism, recreation and leisure. These activities have grown into a global growth industry, and our coast has particular value in this regard. Together they generate more than R15.2 billion, with over 20 million international and domestic visitors each year. Over 40 different recreational activities take place at the coast. The Gunston 500 surfing competition/Ocean Action event attracts over 800 000 visitors and generates over R220 million for local Durban businesses in only 10 days. There are about 100 000 SCUBA divers active on our coast, in an activity worth about R36 million annually.

Commercial and recreational fishing. The South African commercial fishing industry is worth about R1.7 billion annually. The Benguela fisheries of the west coast support the vast bulk of the industry, but smaller commercial fisheries are also located on the south and east coasts. The industry directly employs between 26 000 and 27 000 people. An additional 60 000 people are employed in related sectors that are exclusively or partly dependent on the fishing industry as a market for the supply of stores, equipment and services. Recreational fishing attracts over 600 000 enthusiasts, employs over 131 000 people and generates over R1.3 billion in revenue each year. This activity is especially popular on the KwaZulu-Natal coast.

Development opportunities. Many other economic benefits are derived from our coast, and future development prospects are enormous. For example, in recognition of current and future economic opportunities, and in response to the marked inequalities along the coast, eight of ten current Spatial Development Initiatives (SDIs) are linked to the coast. These multi-billion-rand coastal development proposals have an anticipated total value of R90 billion and a projected employment of 90 000 people.

THE LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL SETTING

The legal and institutional setting can be characterised as one of change and opportunity. There is also considerable variability between coastal regions and provinces. Urgent attention needs to be given to clarifying roles and responsibilities across different spheres of government and between different agencies.

Change and Opportunity

The new Constitution and a growing awareness of the need for sustainable coastal development provide a positive climate for promoting effective coastal management in the interests of all South Africans.

There are now four coastal provinces, instead of the previous two provinces and the former Transkei, Ciskei and KwaZulu "homelands". The legal and institutional challenges associated with this change are profound and are likely to be felt for a considerable time to come. Other important changes include those relating to the Constitution, and laws relating to planning, natural resource management (including living marine resources and water) and environmental management more generally. This state of change provides exciting opportunities for repositioning coastal management within a changed legal and institutional setting

Roles and Responsibilities

The current legal context for coastal management is provided by the Constitution and a wide range of national Acts, including the Sea Shore Act, the Environment Conservation Act and the Development Facilitation Act, as well as other legislation relating to land-use planning, protected areas, natural resource management and pollution control. A large number of laws and regulations also exists at provincial and local levels to control coastal development and manage coastal resources.

At present, legislation affecting coastal management is fragmented and is administered by a variety of different Government departments and agencies. It needs to be rationalised and co-ordinated. Various coast-related initiatives, planning exercises and policy processes are taking place at all levels, but are not well co-ordinated.

The Constitution defines concurrent powers with respect to a number of environmental, planning and development functions, as well as certain extended municipal powers. These provisions have the potential to lead to further fragmentation of coastal management. But the Constitution also emphasises the need for co-operative Government, and the need to devolve management functions to the lowest sphere of Government able to undertake them.

The roles and responsibilities of different spheres of Government with respect to coastal management are still in the process of being clarified. At present, there is a high degree of fragmentation, with different spheres responsible for various activities. The lack of a co-ordinating body to provide direction and guide coastal management efforts has resulted in administrative confusion and inefficiency, duplication of efforts, gaps in management and an uncoordinated approach. In general, Government departments do not deal with coastal management directly, nor do they pay particular attention to the coast. But their activities nonetheless influence the coast.

National sphere of Government. The Coastal Management sub-directorate of the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) has a number of responsibilities relating to policy formulation, environmental education, co-ordination of management activities, and international conventions. In practice, the sub-directorate plays a largely advisory role. Coastal functions are also carried out by other units of the DEAT, by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, the Department of Land Affairs and the Department of Minerals and Energy. In general, national departments have tended not to consider coastal management to be part of their responsibilities, particularly in the absence of clear policy guidelines.

Provincial sphere of Government. Much coastal management is carried out through provincial planning, environment and nature conservation departments. Resources are generally seen to be inadequate, particularly for environmental management functions that are increasing in scope. Planning functions are affected by confusion around rapidly changing legislation and structures, which are likely to vary between provinces. These departments are also not able to undertake effective co-ordination with other departments involved with aspects of coastal management.

Local sphere of Government. At the level of local authorities, institutional arrangements are still in a state of change. New planning procedures are in the process of being implemented or developed. The application of these procedures will significantly influence the coast and coastal management. There is a widespread lack of resources and skills for coastal management, particularly by District or Regional Councils in rural areas. This means that proactive coastal management efforts are especially difficult to initiate. In attempts to boost their capacity, some local authorities co-operate with nature conservation agencies and are involved in co-management initiatives with community groups.

This co-operation indicates a positive direction for the future.

This chapter has provided a brief overview of the South African coast. For more information about the regions of our coast, you are referred to Chapter 6, which presents summaries of regional characteristics and issues.

[ Top ]

Chapter 6: Regional Characteristics and Issues

This chapter describes the main characteristics of South Africa's coastal regions, which fall into the following provinces:

• Northern Cape Province
• Western Cape Province
• Eastern Cape Province
• KwaZulu-Natal Province.

INTRODUCTION

Thirteen coastal regions have been defined for the purposes of this programme (See Figure 10). The boundaries were identified after an extensive process of consultation and analysis. In this chapter, the regions are grouped according to provinces. The characteristics of the regions are described, including those of Marion and Prince Edward Islands. The purpose of these descriptions is to provide an indication of key characteristics relating to the natural and socio-economic setting, and development opportunities and constraints of the regions. These summaries are brief, but they provide a clear indication of the diversity and richness of our coast.

Key elements of regional vision statements, as developed in 22 regional workshops, are outlined in Table 6. A summary of regional issues is also outlined in this chapter. These issues were identified through an extensive process of public participation. Additional insight into the regional issues was obtained through:

• Specialist studies undertaken on behalf of the programme
• Review of past research and efforts that led to the development of this programme
• Ongoing monitoring of over 800 newspapers and magazines
• Public comment and feedback on the results of the regional visioning workshops.

The Project Management Team compiled the regional summaries of issues based on these sources. Feedback on the accuracy of the summaries was obtained from interested and affected parties, a number of the specialists who took part in the Specialist Studies and members of a Task Team.

These issues are intended to serve as agenda items for action. This does not mean that the Coastal Policy should necessarily address each issue. Some issues may be best addressed through existing laws and institutions. Nonetheless, these issues serve to highlight the range and scope of regional opportunities and challenges relating to coastal management.

Table 6: Key Elements of the Regional Vision Statements

REGION	ELEMENTS OF THE VISION
NAMAQUALAND We see…	Equitable access to coastal resources and resources being used on a sustainable basis for the benefit of present and future generations Restitution of land to communities subjected to forced removals in the past New economic opportunities that benefit local communities in the region The unique natural and cultural characteristics of the Namaqualand coast being protected and properly managed Areas damaged by mining activities being rehabilitated Community members assuming a greater responsibility for managing coastal resources
WEST COAST We see…	Equitable access to coastal resources for all Communities playing a role in future economic development that strives for job creation, affordable housing and the reduction of poverty The unique natural and cultural features of the West Coast being protected and properly managed Pollution being controlled and waste being managed in an accountable manner Optimal but sustainable use of natural and built resources for the benefit of local people New development opportunities and initiatives that address training, capacity building, environmental awareness and human resource development
CAPE METRO We see…	The coast as our heritage, being managed as a public asset for the benefit of the people of the region and of South Africa Development opportunities that benefit local communities Densification of physical development and encouragement of nodal development The integrity and beauty of the coast being maintained, the indigenous flora being conserved and invasive alien vegetation being removed Limited water resources being carefully managed and pollution being controlled A people with a social ethic who value the coast Co-operative and co-ordinated governance and publicly accountable decision-making
AGULHAS We see…	Community driven development and sustainable job creation for locals A region that is "ecologically friendly", safe and crime free, with a sound and sustainable economy and well developed infrastructure and services Development that is well planned, controlled and consistent with the unique aspects and cultural traditions of the region The unique natural and cultural aspects of the region being retained The region forming part of a biosphere reserve and being world-renowned for its unique assets, such as the tip of Africa and whale watching Plentiful coastal resources benefiting the local communities Effective water conservation systems in place and conservation areas established, forming a green belt between the sea and mountains Well educated, aware and involved communities and co-ordinated, co-operative and responsive Government
GARDEN ROUTE We see…	Basic needs of disadvantaged communities being addressed A sustainable development strategy with nature-based tourism as the core Economic development that benefits local communities and does not negatively affect the spectacular natural features and resources of the region Sensitive development and densification of existing development A biosphere reserve being developed and the wilderness character of the region being maintained, with damaged areas being rehabilitated Better relationships between communities and improved participation in development planning and decision-making Local authorities with more effective environmental controls, legislation and enforcement
SUNSHINE COAST We see…	A "people-friendly" coast that is protected and properly managed as an asset for future generations Sustainable, environmentally-friendly development and a balance between development and conservation Facilities and services along the coast being upgraded and maintained, especially for historically disadvantaged communities The Tsitsikamma National Park being declared a World Heritage Site Local people involved in development and management Effective, well trained coastal managers
BORDER-KEI We see…	Basic needs being met, human rights being guaranteed and "environment friendly" people who are empowered and knowledgeable about the coast A booming tourism industry and development initiatives benefiting different communities and interest groups Appropriate infrastructure and development being encouraged but controlled Abundant coastal and marine resources being used sustainably to the benefit of local communities A common coastal management policy for the whole country and more human and financial resources being allocated to coastal management Clear responsibilities of authorities for implementing laws and regulations Better relationships between authorities and interested and affected parties Legislation that is clear and enforceable and communities being involved in design, implementation and monitoring of laws
WILD COAST We see…	Access to land ownership rights and a restored and effective land administration system Development, access to business opportunities and the area continuing to attract tourists Physical development taking place within a legal framework and better land-use plans addressing housing, infrastructure, agriculture and job creation Biodiversity being conserved and degraded land being rehabilitated Environmental education being taught in schools and communities Social development and environmentally conscious community members who actively participate in programmes
HIBISCUS We see…	Well planned coastal development that benefits local communities Future developments including functional facilities, a harbour and airport, as well as housing, industry and tourism A thriving coastal tourism and recreation destination, with good access and facilities Healthy and intact natural systems, well managed marine reserves and conservation areas, and green belts extending along the coast A pollution-free environment and degraded areas being rehabilitated Natural resources being used on a sustainable basis
DURBAN METRO We see…	Basic needs being met, clean and safe beaches and appropriate access to the coast for all A prosperous coastal city with a balance between economic activities and the environment Well planned development that does not compromise the natural environment and rich biodiversity of the region Protected key natural features and green "corridors" extending throughout the region, and clean, clear rivers from source to sea Environmentally aware people participating in coastal activities Effective institutional arrangements and mechanisms
LOWER TUGELA/ DOLPHIN We see…	Equitable access to resources and opportunities, and educated and informed people A decent quality of life and employment opportunities for all coastal residents Appropriate spatial planning and planning of infrastructure, such as nodal residential and tourism development Impacts on the environment being controlled, regulations being effectively administered and pollution being minimised The special and unique character and natural heritage of the coast being retained Environments that are safe, well managed and conserved, and degraded areas being rehabilitated People participating together to secure sustainable use of resources Effective, fully capacitated and integrated administrations and Government institutions
ZULULAND We see…	Access to the coast and appropriate facilities for all socio-economic groups Co-ordinated development and conservation activities and active public participation in decision-making A regional plan that promotes a balance between industrial, residential, tourism, mining and conservation activities (where development is subject to height restrictions, nodal in nature and set back from the beach) The importance and protection of the natural environment being recognised as a priority by all
MAPUTALAND We see…	Communities with access to natural resources, education facilities and the economic opportunities of the region, such as tourism A society that is non-racial, crime free and empowered, where there is freedom of speech and movement, and traditional values and cultures are respected and preserved Land claims being effectively resolved An economy based on a thriving tourism industry, stimulating development and empowerment for local communities, and providing infrastructure and facilities, while promoting sustainable development A clean and ecologically sound environment that enjoys effective protection The Greater St Lucia Wetland Park being declared a World Heritage Site.

NORTHERN CAPE PROVINCE

The Northern Cape provincial boundaries define the extent of the Namaqualand coastal region.

Namaqualand

The Namaqualand coastal region is a virtually uninhabited desert. It stretches 390 km from the Orange River mouth, on the border between South Africa and Namibia, to the boundary of the Northern Cape and Western Cape Provinces.

Rainfall is low (less than 100 mm annually). Strong southerly winds cause upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich, deep water that maintains extensive beds of aquatic plants, such as kelp. It also supports valuable fisheries including hake, pilchard and anchovy, as well as large seal, sea-bird, rock lobster, mussel and limpet populations. There are relatively few species, but these often occur in very high densities.

There are no significant bays on this straight coast. Sandy shores comprise 30% of the coastline, while rocky shores comprise the remaining 70%. Only the Orange and Olifants rivers flow year-round and the only wetland of note is the Orange River estuary at Alexander Bay, which has international importance and recognition as a Ramsar site.

The region is characterised by sandy soils that support sparse, scrubby strandveld vegetation, which is well adapted to extreme temperatures and limited moisture, but is sensitive to disturbance. Agricultural potential is poor, but the unusual succulent vegetation and annual wild flower display are important assets of the region.

The Magisterial District of Namaqualand had an estimated population of 67 000 in 1995. The coastal population, however, was estimated at 13 000, of which 90% live in the towns of Port Nolloth, Alexander Bay, Kleinsee, Koiingnaas and Hondeklip Bay. Public access to the coast is limited by poor road infrastructure and the tight security restrictions enforced by diamond mining operations.

Unemployment is high in coastal communities. There is an almost total dependence on the few large companies that dominate the diamond mining and fishing activities. Land-based diamond reserves have, however, been almost completely exhausted and off-shore reserves are now being exploited.

Fish stocks, including rock lobster, the major catch landed locally, have been declining for a number of years.

The distance from major urban centres, limited access to markets, scarcity of fresh water, lack of a deep-water harbour and the restricted access to the diamond concession areas pose serious challenges to the region's future development. There are, however, some resources that could be developed. The seal colony at Kleinsee is probably the largest mainland seal colony in the world and could be developed into a tourist attraction. The establishment of the Coastal National Park between the Groen and Spoeg rivers will also appeal to those who appreciate a wilderness experience. Mariculture and harvesting of under-utilised marine resources, such as mussels and limpets, also offer potential for the future development of this region.

Issues: Namaqualand Coast

Our National Heritage

• Physical access to the coast and its resources is limited by mine security restrictions.

Coastal Planning and Development

• The region is relatively undeveloped.
• Infrastructure and services in the region are poor.
• Shortage of water limits development possibilities.
• Unemployment is a major problem.
• Mining dominates the economic development of the region.
• Mining activities are currently being down-scaled.
• Small-scale mining represents an alternative to large-scale operations.
• Alternative opportunities for making a living are limited.
• Revenue generated locally should benefit local communities.
• Nature-based coastal tourism could potentially be developed.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

• Discarded mining equipment degrades the aesthetic value of the coast in many areas.

Natural Resource Management

• Protected area management is needed.
• There is a need for a post-mining development strategy.
• There is a perception that certain species of living marine resources are declining due to the impact of mining on the coast.
• Mined and prospected areas need to be rehabilitated to create opportunities for future use.
• Marine research is hampered by mine security restrictions.
• Controversy surrounds the potential for seal harvesting.
• There is a need to review the allocation of kelp harvesting concessions.
• Restricted coastal access prevents exploitation of the alien black mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis), contributing to its spread.

Governance and Capacity Building

• Community involvement in planning and management of mining activities is very limited.
• Mining, recreation, conservation and fishing activities in the region have user conflicts.
• There is limited Governmental capacity.
• Management authorities are located far from the coast.
• Applications for new prospecting and mining permits should be subject to impact assessments.

WESTERN CAPE PROVINCE

The Western Cape Province includes the West Coast, Cape Metro, Agulhas and Garden Route regions.

West Coast

The West Coast is a sparsely populated, wind-swept, arid region. It stretches 260 km, from the Olifants River mouth at the boundary between the Northern Cape and the Western Cape provinces, to Bokpunt, near Atlantis, on the outskirts of the Cape Town Metropole.

The region has a semi-arid climate with low rainfall (100 - 400 mm annually). Strong southerly winds are responsible for the upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich waters that support extensive kelp beds and substantial stocks of fish, abalone, mussels, rock lobster and seals.

The coast is indented by several bays, including Saldanha Bay, the only deep-water bay in South Africa. Sandy beaches interspersed with occasional rocky outcrops along the shores of St Helena Bay give way to a more rugged, rocky shoreline at Columbine and Saldanha, and long sandy beaches to the south. Sandy beaches comprise 73% of the coastline, while rocky shore and wave-cut rocky platforms comprise the remaining 27%.

There are several significant river and wetland systems, notably the Olifants and Berg rivers, Verlorenvlei, Rocher Pan and Langebaan Lagoon, which provide important habitat for wading birds.

The agricultural potential of the area is poor. Soils are sandy and vegetation is typically sparse, consisting mainly of strandveld (semi-succulent scrub) and fynbos, which are well adapted to the hot, dry conditions.

The Magisterial Districts of the West Coast had an estimated population of 273 000 in 1995. The population along the coast, however, was estimated at 40 000, concentrated in the towns of Lamberts Bay, Velddrif, St Helena Bay, Vredenburg, Saldanha and Langebaan. The deep-water port of Saldanha forms the centre of the Vredenburg-Saldanha-Langebaan complex, the largest settlement on the West Coast. The coastal road stretches north only as far as Velddrif, and towns such as Elands Bay and Lamberts Bay are accessible only from inland. Part of the Sishen-Saldanha railway line serves the northern areas.

The West Coast is the centre of South Africa's commercial fishing industry. Highly industrialised and capital-intensive trawl and purse-seine fisheries, together with the lobster fishery, dominate the economy of the region. Hake and pilchard fisheries are showing a recovery from past over-exploitation, but the lobster fishery is declining. Poaching of this valuable resource is cause for concern. The port of Saldanha caters for recreational, mariculture and industrial activities. The industrial activities were recently given a boost through the development of the Saldanha Steel project.

Other coastal towns, such as Lamberts Bay, Velddrif, Elands Bay and Yzerfontein, are increasingly attracting tourists and holiday home-owners. Several modern resorts, such as Club Mykonos, Port Owen and Britannia Bay, catering almost exclusively for visitors, are also developing along the coast.

The scarcity and quality of fresh water has been one of the major obstacles to development in this region. Despite this problem, there has been substantial investment in mariculture, shipping, industrial, manufacturing, tourism and recreational activities. Natural features, such as the wild flowers and Langebaan Lagoon, which forms part of the West Coast National Park, as well as the region's close proximity to Cape Town, make it an attractive tourism and holiday destination.

Issues: West Coast

Our National Heritage

• The unique character of the West Coast must be maintained.
• Physical access to the coast is restricted by private land holdings, private development nature conservation areas.
• Coastal land owned by the navy should be opened to the public but not in a way that has adverse effects on the natural environment.
• There is controversy over access to marine resources and how the benefits could be more equitably distributed.

Coastal Planning and Development

• The region is currently under-developed.
• Limited water resources constrain development possibilities.
• There is a conflict between industrial development, nature conservation and tourism activities, particularly in the Saldanha-Langebaan area.
• Developers put little back into the local economy.
• The fishing industry, which is dominated by a few large consortiums, is in decline.
• There is a need for optimum and multiple-use of fishing harbours and ongoing maintenance.
• Mariculture opportunities need to be explored.
• The tourism industry is very seasonal.
• The agricultural potential of the region is poor.
• Uncontrolled ribbon development is taking place.
• Amenity values are being compromised by sprawling development.
• Growth of holiday housing developments puts pressure on existing infrastructure.
• The possible construction of a coastal road presents both opportunities and challenges.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

• There is a potential risk of air and water pollution associated with increasing industrial.
• There is a need for an environmental monitoring programme to identify existing and potential risks.

Natural Resource Management

• More protected areas are needed.
• Some areas have a high natural heritage value, e.g., Langebaan and Verlorenvlei.
• Insufficient control over the exploitation of marine resources.
• Good water quality in Saldanha Bay area required for local mariculture activities.
• Agricultural irrigation systems result in the draw-down of the regional water table, resulting in saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifers.
• Degraded coastal resources and habitats need to be rehabilitated.

Governance and Capacity Building

• There is a lack of enforcement of existing laws.
• Responsible authorities are not scrutinising development applications thoroughly enough.
• Some development is driven by greed.
• There is a need for environmental audits of developments in sensitive coastal areas.
• Management plans of different authorities need to be rationalised and integrated.
• Community involvement in development planning and management is limited.

Cape Metro

The Cape Metro is a densely populated urban area. The region extends 195 km from Bokpunt, near Atlantis, to Cape Hangklip, the eastern headland of False Bay.

The Mediterranean climate ensures warm, dry summers and cool, wet winters, with annual rainfall varying between 400 mm in the low-lying areas to over 2 000 mm in some mountainous areas. The strong southerly winds cause upwelling of deep nutrient-rich water and result in highly productive, cold coastal waters. This results in extensive kelp beds and large populations of seals and penguins, as well as species such as pilchard, anchovy, rock lobster and abalone. Furthermore, the Cape Peninsula lies at the junction of the cool-temperate west coast and the warm-temperate south coast and consequently has a particularly high biological diversity.

There are a variety of bays along this rugged coastline, including two of the largest bay systems in South Africa - Table Bay and False Bay. The shore consists of a mix of sandy beaches (43%) and rocky shores (57%). There are no large river catchments, but some important estuarine wetlands are found at Rietvlei, the mouth of the Diep River, the Disa River, Wildevoëlvlei, Die Mond at Cape Point and Sandvlei.

Soils are characteristically sandy and, although low in nutrients, support extensive areas of fynbos, which has very high plant diversity.

Although the rich soils of valleys such as Constantia and the hills north of Cape Town have high agricultural value, most of the coast is dominated by human settlement. The population is large (in excess of 1.6 million in 1995), with about 900 000 people living in coastal suburbs within the Cape Town commuter belt, including, for example, Melkbosstrand, Camps Bay, Hout Bay, Ocean View, Muizenberg and Strand.

Infrastructure is very well developed, with good road, rail, shipping and aircraft links. In addition to the port of Cape Town, important small-craft harbours are located at Hout Bay, Simons Bay, Kalk Bay and Gordons Bay.

The large and diverse economy is based mainly on manufacturing, Government and community services, shipping, commerce and tourism. Although manufacturing makes the greatest contribution to income, the Government and community services sector employs the greatest number of people. High demand for residential housing along the coast reflects a vibrant regional economy. Population growth and urbanisation, however, are putting pressure on water supplies, waste disposal systems and the amenity value of the region.

The scenic beauty of the region forms the basis of major tourism, recreational and real estate industries. Local and international tourists are drawn here by the region's natural and cultural features, including Table Mountain, the magnificent coast, beaches and surfing sites, the penguin and seal colonies, and other recreational opportunities offered by the region. The recently proclaimed Cape Peninsula National Park should contribute to better management of the region's natural attractions.

Issues: Cape Metro

Our National Heritage

• Controversy exists over access to marine resources and a more equitable distribution of benefits.
• Access to certain beaches (e.g., AECI and Somchem) is restricted.
• There is a need to protect and guarantee traditional user rights.
• Coastal property is unaffordable to the majority of the population.

Coastal Planning and Development

• There is a need for appropriate planning and growth management strategies.
• Coastal development and resource use must focus on the creation of employment.
• Historically disadvantaged communities located on the coast have limited work opportunities and recreational facilities near their place of residence.
• Increasing levels of human settlement must be more effectively managed.
• Problems facing the design and management of urban areas in this region include: retaining the visual quality, waste disposal and maintenance of water quality, intensity of use of amenities and resources, management of informal settlements, and ensuring safety and security.
• Public transport systems need upgrading.
• Only coastal dependent business and industry should be located on the coast.
• Sprawling urban development has led to a loss of prime agricultural land and recreational opportunities and negative impacts on the landscape.
• The siting of Koeberg close to the city is problematic and constrains development in this area. There is a need to consider its fate after decommissioning.
• There is a need to expand sustainable tourism opportunities.
• Future development below the low water mark must be prevented and inappropriately development phased out over time.
• Opportunities for multiple-use of the port need to be investigated and promoted.
• The city and the port need to be integrated.
• Small-craft harbour maintenance is needed.
• Fresh water is a constraint on development possibilities.
• Inappropriately sited coastal development impacts negatively on coastal aquifers.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

• Effluent disposal and stormwater runoff, especially from informal settlements, pose a potential health risk.
• Water quality problems in False Bay, discharging from catchment areas, are of particular concern.
• There must be strict enforcement of regulations on dumping at sea and in harbours (oil, etc.).
• Oil spill contingency plans must be maintained.
• Litter on beaches needs attention.

Natural Resource Management

• Protected area management is needed to protect indigenous coastal fauna and flora.
• Coastal erosion requires attention (e.g., Milnerton).
• There is inappropriate development in coastal wetlands and river systems.
• There are various examples of inappropriately designed and located structures that interfere with natural physical coastal processes.
• There is over-exploitation of some marine living resources.
• Many of the river systems are degraded.
• Indigenous coastal vegetation is lost due to invasive plants and inappropriately located development.
• Environmental degradation and conflict occur due to illegal informal settlements.
• The aesthetic appeal of the area is reduced by degraded natural resources and mined areas which need to be rehabilitated.

Governance and Capacity Building

• Education and awareness programmes are needed for the public on environmental and coastal matters.
• The opportunity for public review of land use planning processes is limited.
• Confusion exists over roles and responsibilities.
• Conflict due to illegal informal settlements is not adequately dealt with.
• Conflict resolution mechanisms are currently inadequate (e.g., illegal and legal harvesters).
• Visible policing is needed to secure coastal recreational opportunities.

Agulhas Coast

The Agulhas coast is the southernmost coastal region in Africa. It extends 335 km, from Cape Hangklip, the eastern headland of False Bay, to the mouth of the Gouritz River, just west of Mossel Bay.

Rainfall is seasonal, with 400 mm – 1 000 mm falling mainly during the winter months each year. This seasonality is less pronounced towards the east. Cape Agulhas lies roughly between the cool west coast and the subtropical east coast, with water temperatures increasing eastwards. The coastal waters are highly productive due to upwelling of nutrient-rich waters, mainly west of Cape Agulhas, but also at selected locations as far east as Port Elizabeth. Important resources include kelp and red algae, pilchard, dagerad, white steenbras, kob, galjoen, black mussels, white mussels, alikreukel, rock lobster and abalone.

The region has several large bays, for example Walker Bay and St Sebastian Bay, and many smaller bays. About 43% of the coast is sandy beach, 39% rocky shore and 18% wave-cut rocky platform. The region contains a number of important wetlands, such as Botrivier Vlei, Kleinrivier Vlei, Heuningnes and De Hoop Vlei, and river systems, such as the Breede and Gouritz rivers.

The region is widely held to be the centre of the Cape Floral Kingdom, commonly known as fynbos. The mountain fynbos of the western mountains exhibits very high species diversity, while lowland areas support some of the remaining lowland fynbos. The area immediately inland of the coast is intensively utilised for agriculture.

The Magisterial Districts of the Agulhas Coast had an estimated population of 173 000 in 1995. The coastal population, however, was estimated at 35 000, concentrated in the greater Hermanus area. Commercial line-fishing operations are based in the towns of Hermanus, Gansbaai, Arniston, Struisbaai and Stilbaai. Intensive fishing has, however, caused the collapse of many fish stocks. This region is the centre of South Africa's abalone industry, with both marine and land-based mariculture operations. Uncontrolled poaching, however, seriously threatens the existence of this resource.

The region has become increasingly popular as a tourism, recreation and retirement destination because of its natural features and scenic beauty. It is home to the De Hoop Nature Reserve which contains 50 km of protected coastline and offers significant regional conservation and tourism opportunities. Shore-based whale watching in this region is reputed to be the best in the world.

The proximity to Cape Town and good road networks have increased numbers of weekend visitors. Consequently, there is growing demand for holiday accommodation and related development, which affects not only the natural resource base, but the socio-economic and cultural characteristics of the region. Small fishing villages are giving way to holiday and resort developments, and development has been diverted away from the traditional inland commercial centres of Caledon and Bredasdorp. Limited fresh water resources, particularly towards the eastern part of the region, are a constraint on future development. The culture of "cocktail-sized" abalone is currently being developed and could prove to be lucrative. Other exploitable natural resources include black and white mussels, octopus and alikreukel.

Issues: Agulhas Coast

Our National Heritage

• Pedestrian access above the high water mark must be ensured.
• Privatisation of state land on the coast limits public access.
• Appropriately designed or controlled access to beaches is needed to protect the sensitivity of the area.
• Historically disadvantaged communities have limited access to marine resources.

Coastal Planning and Development

• No growth management strategy.
• Need to diversify activities to provide sustainable jobs.
• Sprawling development reduces the amenity value of the coast.
• There is limited land for coastal development at established nodes.
• Development speculation should be prevented.
• Fynbos areas are destroyed by developers prior to rezoning approval (e.g., Suiderstrand).
• The seasonal nature of the tourism industry is problematic for the provision of adequate and infrastructure.
• Inadequate infrastructure exists (e.g., access roads, amenity facilities at beaches).
• Tourist facilities urgently need upgrading.
• Ongoing maintenance and efficient multiple-use of harbours is required.
• The needs of agriculture, forestry and nature-based tourism must be balanced.
• Limited fresh water is a constraint on development possibilities.
• Mariculture opportunities need to be further explored.
• There is a loss of cultural heritage sites (e.g., Waenhuiskrans fisher culture, middens, shipwrecks).

Pollution Control and Waste Management

• There is a risk of oil pollution from ships.
• A waste recycling policy needs to be implemented.

Natural Resource Management

• There is a need to protect unique and special natural systems and features.
• The "southern tip of Africa" must be protected against inappropriate development and degradation.
• A marine reserve is needed between the Gouritz and Breede rivers.
• Certain marine resources are over-exploited.
• There is a high level of conflict over coastal resource use resulting in violent clashes.
• User conflicts occur between subsistence, commercial and recreational users (e.g., Hawston).
• Stocks of commercial marine resources are declining.
• Poor catchment management (e.g., excessive water abstraction, poor agricultural practices, siltation of rivers).
• Uncontrolled off-road vehicle use damages dunes and coastal vegetation.

Governance and Capacity Building

• There is a lack of environmental education.
• Developers do not take public participation seriously – this leads to conflict.
• Confusion exists due to overlapping roles and poor co-operation amongst different levels of Government.
• There is a lack of capacity to enforce legislation (e.g., poaching).
• Management authorities are far removed from the coast.
• There is a need for more accountable resource management.

Garden Route

The Garden Route is a rugged and scenic region that extends 225 km, from the Gouritz River west of Mossel Bay, to the Blaauwkrantz River which marks the boundary between the Western and Eastern Cape provinces.

The climate is warm temperate, with peak spring and autumn rainfall that averages between 700 and 1 200 mm annually. The coastal waters are warm (17 – 23^o C), due to the influence of the Agulhas Current, but the upwelling of cold water occurs at times, considerably reducing the water temperature. The waters are productive and support a diversity of plant, animal and bird life, including numerous fish such as hake, monk, snoek and maasbanker, as well as chokka, algae, limpets, oysters, seals and cormorants.

The coast comprises 44% rocky headlands, 18% wave-cut rocky platforms and 38% sandy beaches, as well as five major bays: Visbaai, Vleesbaai, Mossel Bay, Buffalo Bay and Plettenberg Bay. The region has many rivers. Some of the important estuaries include those at the mouths of the Gouritz, Klein Brak, Groot Brak, Swartvlei, Knysna, Keurbooms, Sout and Blaauwkrantz rivers. There are also four fresh-water lakes – Langvlei, Bo-Langvlei, Rondevlei and Groenvlei which, together with the estuarine Swartvlei Lake, constitute the Wilderness Lakes system. Three protected areas incorporate 13% of the coastline: the Goukamma Nature Reserve, the Robberg Marine Reserve and the westernmost portion of the Tsitsikamma Coastal National Park. High dunes occur along the coast, particularly in the area of the Wilderness Lakes.

There are large tracts of both indigenous coastal forest and timber plantations in the region. Fynbos and high-potential agricultural land make up most of the remainder of the undeveloped areas.

The Magisterial Districts of the Garden Route had an estimated population of 225 000 in 1995. The main urban centres are Mossel Bay, George (some 10 km inland), Plettenberg Bay and Knysna. There is good road and rail infrastructure in the region, with a harbour located at Mossel Bay and airports at George and Plettenberg Bay.

Tourism and holiday related development and services are a major economic activity in the region, but these activities are seasonal, with many visitors coming to the region only during the peak summer holiday season. This creates a large seasonal fluctuation in population. There are also many absentee home-owners in the region. Other important economic activities include fishing (especially hake), forestry and agriculture (including vegetables, hops and dairy farming), and a petroleum industry based in Mossel Bay. The scarcity of fresh water could be a constraint on future development options.

The Garden Route has enormous value as a tourism and recreational asset. The region's popularity as a holiday and retirement area has, however, led to rapid property development. Inappropriate property developments could seriously detract from the Garden Route's scenic qualities, which are its main marketing feature.

Issues: Garden Route Coast

Our National Heritage

• Public access is limited by private development, privatisation of beaches and nature reserves.
• The rights and economic interests of subsistence fishers must be respected.

Coastal Planning and Development

• No regional development strategy exists.
• Local authorities need to develop integrated development plans.
• Economic activities must be diversified to provide sustainable jobs.
• There is limited evidence as to how income from rates and taxes benefits the local economy.
• Planning should occur to maintain the unique wilderness character of the region.
• Uncontrolled subdivision of agricultural land occurs.
• Sprawling development leads to a loss of prime agricultural land and declining amenity value.
• There is ribbon development and uncontrolled expansion of urban boundaries.
• Development occurs too close to the sea – there is a need to establish buffer and transition zones.
• High impact commercial activity on the coast leads to degradation.
• There are opportunities for nature-based tourism but these are very seasonal.
• Local infrastructure cannot cope with the annual influx of tourists.
• The provision of services needs to be de-politicised.
• Limited fresh-water resources restrict potential development opportunities.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

• Pollution from land and sea needs to be monitored and controlled.
• There is a risk of oil pollution from ships.

Natural Resource Management

• There is a need to preserve sensitive coastal areas.
• Alien vegetation threatens indigenous vegetation.
• There is a lack of understanding and knowledge of the impact of actions on the natural environment.
• Concern exists regarding responsibility for repair of ecological damage caused through inappropriate development and land use.

Governance and Capacity Building

• Education and awareness programmes are needed for the public on environmental and coastal matters.
• Improved public participation is needed in the development process.
• Resource management responsibilities for the lakes are changing (e.g., Knysna) and there is concern over the ability of local authorities to assume this responsibility.
• Lack of clarity exists about responsibility for enforcement of legislation.
• Legislation is outdated and inappropriate.
• Existing legislation is not effectively enforced.
• There is a lack of trust funds for immediate mitigation of negative impacts.

EASTERN CAPE PROVINCE

The Eastern Cape Province is made up of the Sunshine Coast, Border-Kei and Wild Coast regions.

Sunshine Coast

The Sunshine Coast is a mixture of undeveloped coastal areas and small towns that extends 385 km from the boundary of the Western and Eastern Cape provinces to the Great Fish River. The city of Port Elizabeth dominates the region.

The climate is warm-temperate, tending towards sub-tropical in the east. Peak rainfall (500 - 650 mm) occurs in spring and autumn. The warm coastal waters, with occasional cold-water upwellings, support more than 70 species of fish, such as mullet, steenbras, zebra, blacktail and sole, as well as chokka and rock lobsters.

More than 55% of the coast is comprised of sandy beaches, while rocky headlands make up 24% and wave-cut rocky platforms 21%. The region is dominated by two large bays, St Francis and Algoa bays, with other smaller bays occurring at Slangbaai and Thysbaai.

There are several large estuaries, such as the Swartkops, Krom, Kowie, Boesmans, Great Fish, Gamtoos and Sundays. The Alexandria dunefield on the northern shores of Algoa Bay is the largest dunefield in South Africa. There are several islands in Algoa Bay. St Croix, Brenton and Jahleel islands are nature reserves, with St Croix serving as the most easterly breeding site for the threatened jackass penguin. Bird, Stag and Seal islands and Black Rocks are smaller islands and are protected as sanctuaries for seals and seabirds.

The region is noted for the diversity of vegetation types, including large forests in the wetter western areas, fynbos on coastal cliffs and thicket in the drier eastern sections. Grasslands and pastures have high agricultural potential.

The five Magisterial Districts of the Sunshine Coast had an estimated population of 849 000 in 1995. About 84% of the population lives in Port Elizabeth. Other coastal towns include Sea Vista in St Francis Bay, Jeffreys Bay, Kenton-on-Sea and Port Alfred. Infrastructure in the region is good and tourism and recreational development and services are significant in the region. Many resort towns offer a range of outdoor activities, including water-sports, hiking, whale watching and fishing. There are several marinas in the region.

The economy is dominated by the manufacturing, commercial and industrial activities of Port Elizabeth. The most important fishing activities relate to chokka, kingklip and sole, as well as abalone farming. Sand mining for the cement industry occurs in Algoa Bay. Other activities include forestry, particularly in the Humansdorp district, and a range of agricultural practices. One limitation to further development is the lack of fresh-water resources, which is particularly notable in the St Francis Bay region.

Widespread poverty, increasing unemployment and the influx of people from the former Ciskei and Transkei to Port Elizabeth has added impetus to the need for large-scale industrial projects, such as the proposed Coega harbour and Industrial Development Zone. Such developments could potentially have far-reaching consequences and are the subject of intense debate.

Issues: Sunshine Coast

Our National Heritage

• Physical access to parts of the region is difficult.
• Access is constrained by land privatisation, nature reserve areas, topography and access fees.
• Opportunities for recreational fishing are inequitable.

Coastal Planning and Development

• There is a need to diversify coastal economies.
• Revenue generated locally should remain in local communities.
• Intense coastal settlement, particularly around Port Elizabeth, poses a management challenge.
• Urban pressures on Swartkops and Buffalo estuaries are severe.
• There is a concern regarding rapid development expansion and sprawl, especially around river mouths.
• Aesthetic appeal is important — development needs to be informed by appropriate guidelines.
• There is a need to upgrade existing tourism and recreational facilities to encourage more visitors.
• A scarcity of water limits development possibilities.
• Development of the fishing industry is hampered by a lack of harbour facilities.
• A boat launching facility and fish-processing plant are needed.
• The Coega harbour and Industrial Development Zone need careful planning and impact assessment.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

• Pollution from land and sea needs to be controlled and monitored.
• Inappropriately planned sewage disposal is a serious problem.
• Seepage from septic tanks contaminates coastal aquifers.
• Bays and inlets are vulnerable to pollution accumulation due to limited depth and water circulation.

Natural Resource Management

• There is a need to identify and manage sensitive and unique areas requiring protection.
• There is a perception that international fishing activities in South African waters impact heavily on fishing resources.
• Uncontrolled harvesting of shellfish occurs.
• Excessive water abstraction from coastal aquifers leads to salt-water intrusion.
• Uncontrolled off-road vehicle use is a cause for concern.
• Indigenous coastal vegetation is being destroyed.
• Degraded coastal resources need rehabilitation.

Governance and Capacity Building

• Public education and awareness programmes on environmental and coastal matters are needed.
• There appears to be apathy amongst local inhabitants about becoming involved in yet another policy initiative.
• Improved public participation in development and coastal management is required.
• There is a need to develop a coastal management forum.
• There is limited institutional capacity.
• Confusion exists over roles and responsibilities in enforcing legislation.
• There is a lack of enforcement of existing legislation.
• Conflicts exist between recreational activities and conservation needs.
• Security on beaches is required.

Border-Kei Region

The Border-Kei coastal region is largely rural, with East London being the main urban centre. The region extends 153 km from the Great Fish River to the Great Kei River.

The climate is mild sub-tropical, with annual rainfall between 800 and 1 000 mm, falling mostly in spring, autumn and summer. The warm coastal waters support fish, rock lobster and chokka, with the potential to develop commercial and subsistence fisheries in reef fish, octopus and cuttlefish.

Most of the region is characterised by sandy beaches (62%) interspersed with rocky shores (2%) and wave-cut rocky platforms (36%). More than 32 rivers flow into the sea, with resort development at virtually all river mouths in the eastern part of the region. Large estuaries include the Great Fish, Keiskamma, Buffalo, Nahoon, Gonubie, Kwelera, Bulura and Kei rivers. There are several marine reserves, but no land-based nature reserves. The indigenous State forest reserves, however, afford some protection to the coastal land areas. The vegetation is mainly dune thicket and grassland. Towards the east, vegetated dunes are covered with dense indigenous coastal forest.

The four Magisterial Districts of the Border-Kei Coast had an estimated population of 602 000 in 1995, of which about 85% lived in East London. There are also small resort towns at Hamburg, Kidds Beach, Haga Haga, Morgan's Bay and Kei Mouth. In addition, there are resorts, houses and rural villages scattered along the coast.

East London and its surrounds have good road and rail infrastructure, including an airport and harbour. It has a manufacturing and industrial base and an important tourism industry. In contrast, the former Ciskei is amongst the poorest areas in the country, with virtually non-existent infrastructure, poor access to the coast and a high level of subsistence activity. There is little commercial fishing in the region, but recreational angling is popular, especially near the eastern resort towns. Seaweed is actively harvested, and a mariculture operation is under construction at Marshstrand.

There are a few quarries near Gonubie which extract sand for the building industry. There are a range of commercial farming operations, including dairy and beef farming and vegetable and pineapple cultivation in the east of the region.

The region's scenic beauty, high biodiversity and wilderness character could support community-based tourism ventures in the future. The development of large-scale industrial projects, such as the proposed East London Industrial Development Zone, focusing on the electronics industry, also offer opportunities to reduce the widespread poverty.

Issues: Border-Kei Region

Our National Heritage

• People do not understand the motivation for placing restrictions on harvesting of traditional food sources.
• Land tenure is of great concern, especially with respect to land owned by the former Ciskei government.

Coastal Planning and Development

• No regional structure plans exist.
• Good development plans are buried in bureaucracy – need to establish a way of encouraging good development.
• Economic development is needed to create more job opportunities.
• Job creation is often pursued at the expense of environmental sustainability.
• There is under-development and poor infrastructure and services in various parts of the region.
• Opportunities exist for nature-based coastal tourism and holiday homes.
• Beaches are overcrowded during peak periods.
• Coastal development is often uncontrolled.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

• There is inadequate sewage treatment and sewage is discharged directly into the ocean and watercourses.
• The disposal of land-based industrial and domestic effluent (treated and untreated) into the sea is controversial.

Natural Resource Management

• Poverty impacts negatively on natural resources.
• The overall degradation of the environment requires urgent attention.
• There is general degradation of estuaries.
• Invasion of alien plants is of great concern.
• Unsustainable use of marine and coastal resources is of concern.

Governance and Capacity Building

• There is a lack of environmental education.
• A lack of structures and avenues for public participation impedes progress in regulating development and activities.
• Interested parties are not consulted about development proposals or implementation of legislation regulating activities.
• There are too many laws and loopholes in the laws.
• Confusion exists regarding responsibility.
• There is inadequate and fragmented enforcement of existing laws.
• There is a lack of commitment by the authorities.
• There is poor institutional capacity.
• Safety and security is of concern.

Wild Coast

The Wild Coast is a rugged and undeveloped region, extending 270 km from the Great Kei River to the boundary between the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal.

The climate is sub-tropical with plentiful rain, 1 000 – 1 200 mm annually, that falls predominantly in spring and autumn. The warm coastal waters support many fish and invertebrates, such as snoek, maasbanker, kob, silverfish, yellowtail, rock lobster and chokka, as well as a diversity of inter-tidal organisms including oysters and mussels.

The region has numerous river outlets, bays and headlands, and is characterised by rocky shores (41% wave-cut platforms and 18% rocky headlands) and sandy beaches (34%). The largest estuaries include the Qora, Nqabara, Mbashe, Mtata, Mtakatye, Mzimvubu, Kei and Mgazana rivers.

The southern portion of this region is characterised by low hills and meandering rivers. Farther north, there are steep cliffs deeply incised by rivers which plunge straight into the sea at several places. This aptly named, rugged and isolated coast is difficult to access, which has contributed to maintaining large areas of undeveloped land.

About half of the coastline is comprised of indigenous coastal forest that exhibits high levels of biodiversity. Some 900 grassland and forest species with commercial, traditional and homeopathic value have been identified. Five marine and nature reserves cover 19% of the coastline: Dwesa; Cwebe; Hluleka; and, Mkambati. Although currently administered as a reserve by East Cape Nature Conservation, Silaka has yet to be established in terms of law. Many of the forests are under the jurisdiction of the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, and the remaining coastal land falls under communal tribal tenure.

The nine Magisterial Districts of the Wild Coast had an estimated population of 1.1 million in 1995, with about 8 000 residing in the main coastal town of Port St John's. Most of this region's population is located well inland of the coast. A number of holiday resort settlements have been established at places like Trennerys, Mazeppa Bay and Coffee Bay. Infrastructure is, however, poor. Port St John's and Coffee Bay are the only towns served by a tarred road.

The region is dominated by rural subsistence activities, and a high percentage of men are absent as they are involved in migrant labour. Most economic activities are located well inland, with employment primarily in the Government sector. The coast nonetheless provides an important source of food and other resources for local people. Estuaries and mangrove areas are used to some extent by tourists for fishing and boating, and by the local population for food and building materials.

There is a small forestry industry and fruit and sugarcane farming are becoming more common. The Wild Coast, however, contributes only a small proportion to the economy of the Eastern Cape. Moreover, the virtual collapse of the local administration has created a climate in which uncontrolled, and often illegal, coastal resource use occurs.

With spectacular scenery, deep and fertile soils and a low level of development, agriculture, forestry and tourism are the main potential growth industries, and form the basis of the proposed Wild Coast Spatial Development Initiative. Opportunities should be aimed at small-scale farmers and small, medium and micro enterprises around cultural and nature-based tourism. There is, however, some concern about the extent to which small-scale businesses will derive benefits from this initiative. The challenge will be to bring about much needed investment and development that will benefit local communities and the region as a whole, without compromising the rich natural resource base.

Issues: Wild Coast

Our National Heritage

• There is poor public access to the coast due to topography, lack of infrastructure, state-owned land (e.g., forest reserves).
• Locals experience difficulties in entering the fishing and tourism markets.
• Quota allocations are perceived to be discriminatory.

Coastal Planning and Development

• The impacts of macro-economic policies are poorly understood.
• There is a high level of unemployment.
• The majority of communities do not benefit from local fishing.
• The area is largely under-developed due to limited economic opportunities, poor infrastructure and services.
• There are no regional structure plans or methods for environmental monitoring of development.
• There is a need to integrate coastal management principles into the Spatial Development Initiatives.
• There is confusion about ownership rights due to land restitution issues, causing delays in development proposals.
• Nature-based coastal tourism opportunities exist and could benefit local communities.
• Lack of appropriate sewage infrastructure causes pollution of coastal waters.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

• A general concern exists about pollution control and enforcement of land-based waste management measures being inadequate.

Natural Resource Management

• Many areas have high natural heritage value.
• There is a need to identify and protect sensitive and unique areas.
• Over-use of resources causes depletion, particularly inter-tidal resources.
• Poverty impacts negatively on natural resources.
• Uncontrolled wood harvesting for curios is a problem.
• Collection of plants for muti on an unsustainable basis destroys valuable natural resources.
• Slash and burn agriculture has a negative impact on air and water quality.

Governance and Capacity Building

• Structures for public participation are lacking.
• The important role of traditional leaders and communal tenure needs to be recognised.
• Relationships between local communities and nature conservation agencies are problematic.
• Environmental education and awareness programmes are needed.
• There is a need for capacity building amongst local communities and officials to enable more meaningful participation in coastal management.
• There is a lack of ability within local Government to deal with conflicts around land use, as demonstrated by the need for the Heath Commission to investigate illegal coastal development.
• Inadequate knowledge about legislation gives rise to disputes.
• Traditional rural councils are unclear about policies for resettlement.
• The collapse of Government in the area has lead to serious administrative problems.
• There is no co-ordinated or integrated development planning between local authorities and communities.
• Thuggery and crime are rife in areas.
• Safety of tourists is of great concern.

KWAZULU-NATAL PROVINCE

KwaZulu-Natal Province is made up of the Hibiscus, Durban Metro, LowerTugela/ Dolphin, Zululand and Maputaland coastal regions.

Hibiscus Coast

The Hibiscus Coast is a popular holiday destination that extends 127 km from the Umtamvuna River to the Ilovo River, south of the Durban Metro.

The region has a warm sub-tropical climate with plentiful rain, 1 000 –1 200 mm annually, that falls mainly in summer. The coast consists predominantly of coarse sandy beaches and occasional rocky headlands and wave-cut platforms. The most prominent offshore reefs occur at the Aliwal Shoal/Landers complex off Umkomaas and the Protea Banks off Shelley Beach.

The warm coastal waters support high biodiversity due to the range of habitats the region offers. Pelagic and reef fish and many inshore species such as mussels, oysters, redbait and rock lobster are heavily utilised. At present, there is only one small protected area, the Trafalgar Marine Reserve.

The region has about 50 estuaries, the highest number and density of estuaries on the KwaZulu-Natal coast. Large rivers include the Mkomazi and Mzimkulu rivers. Mangroves, reedbeds and swamp forests are associated with some rivers. The coastal vegetation is mainly sub-tropical thicket, which features an exceptionally high number of endemic species, despite generally infertile soils.

The combination of past racially-based controls and the concentration of industry inland has resulted in relatively small numbers of people living on the coast. The three Magisterial Districts of the Hibiscus Coast had an estimated population of 424 000 in 1995, about 82% of whom live in the rural former KwaZulu area. Infrastructure and services are limited here, with poor roads and a lack of basic services. There is a flow of people out of the region to areas where more jobs can be found. The former Natal districts, on the other hand, contain many small towns, where infrastructure, road and other communication networks and services are well developed. Port Shepstone is the dominant economic and administrative centre and the Uvongo-Margate coastal strip is the main tourist and holiday destination.

A large proportion of the economic activity in this region is due to tourism and recreation. During holiday periods there is a large influx of visitors from all over the country. SCUBA diving, based mainly on the offshore reefs in the region, has emerged as an important industry, with some 40 000 divers visiting Aliwal Shoal annually. Charter boat fishing is also emerging as an increasingly popular activity. While tourism infrastructure is well developed, there is concern that development has not always been pursued in an environmentally responsible manner.

Issues: Hibiscus Coast

Our National Heritage

• Public access is limited due to private ownership.
• Only a few parties derive economic benefits from coastal activities.

Coastal Planning and Development

• Mechanisms are needed to "marry" economic development and conservation, to reduce conflict and optimise development opportunities.
• Some of the existing and proposed tourism development plans reflect a lack of understanding of environmental and cultural values.
• Fragmented development leads to loss of prime agricultural land and reduces amenity value.
• The location of the coastal railway line is controversial.
• Lack of proper infrastructure and services and the general condition of housing has a detrimental effect on the general aesthetic appeal of the region.
• Too many non-coastal dependent developments are located on the coast.
• This region is an important tourism and holiday destination.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

• Rivers are polluted which is compounded by poor catchment management, damming of rivers and discharge of effluent into river systems.
• Sugarcane burning causes air and water pollution.

Natural Resource Management

• Poor catchment management practices lead to degraded rivers and estuaries and massive soil erosion — control efforts appear to be ineffective.
• There is a concern over the negative impact of off-road vehicles on dune vegetation, resulting in increased erosion and wind-blown sand problems.
• There is a need to review the ecological effect of shark nets.

Governance and Capacity Building

• There is public apathy about coastal management.
• Responsibility for dealing with infringements on the Admiralty Reserve is perceived to be unclear (note: the Department of Public Works is responsible for administering use in those areas not controlled by Transitional Local Councils).
• Very little co-ordination occurs between various planning and development initiatives.

Durban Metro

The Durban Metro region is dominated by the Durban Metropolis and extends 52 km from the Ilovo River to the Tongaat River.

The region has a warm sub-tropical climate, with plentiful rainfall (1 000 – 1 200 mm per annum), falling mainly in summer.

The warm coastal waters support many species of fish, including shad, zebra, stumpnose, mullet and karanteen, and invertebrates such as rock lobster and mole crabs. Shark nets are maintained off most beaches to protect swimmers, but they have a negative impact on species such as rays, turtles and dolphins.

The coastline is mostly coarse sandy beaches backed by low dunes. Occasional rocky outcrops, most notable at the entrance to Durban Bay, interrupt the long beaches. Durban Bay is a natural lagoon that has been developed into southern Africa's major port. There are other important estuaries on the Mgeni, Mlazi, Manzimtoti, Ilovo and Molloti rivers.

The development of the harbour and Durban beachfront infrastructure has impacted heavily on the coast. To avoid erosion and maintain the beaches, an expensive sand-pumping scheme has been installed. Durban Bay still, however, plays an important role as an estuary, supporting diverse fish and invertebrate communities. Inter-tidal resources are only lightly exploited, as most of this coast is closed to collection.

The Durban Metropolitan Council area had a population of approximately 1.9 million in 1995, although that of the wider metropolitan region was in excess of 3 million. Despite good infrastructure, about a third of the population is still without formal housing and basic services.

The port handles over 5 000 vessels and over a million containers annually and employs, directly and indirectly, between 20 000 and 30 000 people. More than half of all formal employment is provided by the manufacturing, commerce and financial sectors. Petro-chemicals and textiles are important industrial activities in the region, with large industrial sites located just south of the city and inland at Pinetown. Coastal pollution, from sources such as soil erosion, industrial wastes and shipping, pose a major challenge for the region.

The region has a wide range of natural and human-made attributes that make the area an attractive destination, with approximately 1.5 million people visiting in 1997. The beaches are the most popular attraction (40% of all visitors to KwaZulu-Natal travel to the province to visit Durban's beaches). The region's accessibility (from other parts of the country) and affordability ensure that Durban will remain one of the premier holiday destinations, at least in terms of the domestic market.

Issues: Durban Metro Coast

Our National Heritage

• The coast is a prime national asset and should not benefit only a privileged few.
• Private ownership of the coast (e.g., Transnet) is of concern as it limits public access and opportunities to link the city with the sea.

Coastal Planning and Development

• There is a high level of unemployment.
• Integrated Development Plans currently being prepared by various coastal local authorities should be speeded up and should guide future decision-making.
• There is a need to promote integrated development opportunities.
• The Durban Metro Open Space (D'MOSS) Framework Plan will fortunately provide for protection of key coastal ecosystems.
• Planning and management of Durban city should attempt to retain the coast's amenity value and visual quality.
• Port development opportunities need to be optimised, recognising the physical constraints of Durban Bay and the need for integration of the bay and the city.
• There is a need to consider the possible development of an Industrial Development Zone adjacent to Durban Bay.
• Buy-in by key stakeholders is required in planning and development proposals.
• There is a concern about the ability of local authorities to manage sprawling development.
• Development disrupting coastal processes and increasing the risk of hazards and maintenance costs should be prevented.
• Poor infrastructure and services in certain areas and overcrowding have resulted in informal dwellings being erected in environmentally sensitive areas.
• Informal settlements need to be better managed.
• The likely expansion of the petro-chemical sector and associated impacts need careful consideration.
• Many opportunities for coastal tourism development exist, but these need to be well planned, so as not to "kill the goose that lays the golden egg".
• Tourists often have little regard for the natural environment; they litter, demand infrastructure irrespective of impacts, and do not carry the burden of additional costs of maintenance and rehabilitation.
• Durban is a tourist and holiday destination, especially due to the attraction of its beaches, but concern exists about crime.
• Waterfront development potential needs to be further explored.
• Public safety and security is of concern.
• There is a need to monitor and manage water quality in Durban Bay and metro coastline.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

• Concern exists about the uncaring attitude by industries that pollute and pay little compensation.
• Problems associated with runoff from informal settlements into Durban Bay need to be addressed.
• Industrial pollution needs to be strictly monitored (particularly in the light of possible expansions).
• A potential increase in marine and terrestrial pollution is associated with the likely expansion of the petro-chemical sector.
• Pollution from shipping needs to be strictly controlled.

Natural Resource Management

• Many important coastal resources would be conserved through the implementation of D'MOSS.
• There is a need for protection and management of remaining indigenous coastal vegetation.
• A debate exists over the possible irreversible loss of natural habitat (e.g., sand banks and mangroves) if further infilling of Durban Bay occurs.
• Massive soil erosion occurs due to improper catchment management.
• Channelisation of rivers (e.g., Umlaas) is a concern.
• There is a need to review the ecological effects of shark nets.

Governance and Capacity Building

• There is a need to develop a caring attitude and practice towards the use of the coast and its resources.
• There is a need to use Coast Watch.
• There is a poor relationship between Portnet and the City Council.
• Conflict occurs among coastal user groups (e.g., boating, anglers, surfers, swimming).
• The Durban Metro Environmental Policy Initiative offers opportunities for institutional restructuring around environmental management functions.
• Environmental education is needed.

Lower Tugela / Dolphin Coast

The Dolphin Coast is a sub-tropical region, extending 70 km from Tongaat River to the Tugela River mouth.

The region has a warm climate with plentiful rain (1 000 – 1 200 mm annually) that falls mainly in summer. Warm coastal waters support a wide variety of fish and shellfish that are targeted by recreational and commercial fishers. Species include shad, karanteen, stumpnose, blacktail and mullet, as well as mussels, rock lobsters, redbait, oysters, limpets, ghost crabs and prawns.

The coastline is characterised by coarse sandy beaches enclosed between rocky outcrops. The Tugela is the largest river in the region and there are several estuaries. There has been substantial modification to the natural environment due to land clearing for sugarcane and timber cultivation, as well as coastal housing development. Very little natural vegetation remains and that which remains is mostly on privately owned land.

The Lower Tugela Magisterial District had an estimated population of 104 000 in 1995. The main residential and tourism nodes are Ballito, Salt Rock, Tinley Manor, Blythdale and Zinkwazi. The economy of this region is dominated by agriculture (predominantly sugarcane), light industry (engineering, wood products, paper and packaging) and tourism. Due to its proximity to Durban and the accessibility of beaches, recreational harvesting of inshore resources is extensive, but there is little subsistence use. Most of the industrial areas are situated on the primary development axis between Durban and Richards Bay, the focus for new investment in the proposed Spatial Development Initiative for the area.

This region is reputed to have the fastest growing real estate industry along the South African coast. Many private holiday homes and a few hotels are situated in this region. Although much of the coast has been modified, it is likely to continue to attract large numbers of holidaymakers. The proposed new airport at La Mercy, near Tongaat, could benefit the area and increase the number of visitors to the region.

Issues: Lower Tugela / Dolphin Coast

Our National Heritage

• The coast is a prime asset and benefits from it should not be limited to a privileged few.
• The area is perceived as the playground of the rich.
• Public access to the coast is limited by private ownership of land adjacent to the coast.

Coastal Planning and Development

• Unemployment levels are high — job creation is required.
• The local economy is dominated by relatively few enterprises.
• Concern exists about ribbon development in some areas along the coast.
• Disruption of coastal processes increases the risk of hazards, often leading to "quick-fix" efforts to construct or maintain protective works, the cost of which is often borne by the public.
• The area has considerable tourism potential, but there is concern about the apparent loss of the wealthy sector of the tourism market to the Western Cape.
• Tourism development is hampered by a lack of infrastructure.
• Opportunities for and advantages of tourism development are not adequately exploited.
• Sugarcane yields offer marginal economic returns – there is a need to consider diversifying agricultural activities.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

• Sugarcane burning causes air pollution and ash deposition on surface runoff that ends up in rivers.
• Waste management responsibilities are perceived to be unclear.

Natural Resource Management

• Estuarine degradation results from poor catchment management practices and poor development planning.
• Poverty causes depletion of resources.
• Over-exploitation of living marine resources (fish, rock lobster, prawns and mussels) is inadequately controlled.
• There is a loss of indigenous vegetation to sugarcane farming.
• Concern exists about the environmental impact of sand mining.

Governance and Capacity Building

• Public apathy about coastal matters is a cause for concern.
• Insufficient attention is given to education on environmental/coastal issues.
• Skills, capacity and financial resources are very limited.
• There is confusion and uncertainty about roles and responsibilities.
• There is poor monitoring and inadequate enforcement of existing regulations.
• Conflict occurs among coastal user groups (e.g., ski-boats, anglers, swimming and surfers).
• Use of boats and off-road vehicles is not effectively regulated.

uThungulu: Zululand Coast

The Zululand coastal region extends 134 km from the Tugela River in the south to the St Lucia estuary in the north.

The coastal waters are warm, influenced by the Agulhas Current, and support a variety of coastal and marine organisms, including prawns, lobster, mussels, octopus, fish, whales and whale sharks. The region has a warm sub-tropical climate with good summer rains (1 000 – 1 200 mm annually). The vegetation is generally tropical and sub-tropical thicket, with tropical forest north of Mtunzini. Extensive sugarcane farming and timber production occurs adjacent to the coast.

The coast is dominated by long sandy beaches, backed by high forested dunes, and broad coastal plains with many rivers, coastal lakes and wetlands. These lake and estuarine systems support valuable wetlands, rich in papyrus, swamp forests and mangroves. They also support a wide variety of birds and animals, including, in some cases, hippos and crocodiles. The region contains several estuaries, some of which are proclaimed protected areas.

The three Magisterial Districts of the Zululand Coast had an estimated population of 79 000 in 1995, but the population of the regional hinterland was in the order of 1.8 million. The only coastal city in the region is Richards Bay, which has an important deep water harbour. The region also has a well developed road network and airport facilities.

The economy of the region is dominated by port activities, light and heavy industry, mining, sugarcane and timber.

Formal employment and economic activity is centred around Richards Bay, which supports some 300 000 people in the coastal and hinterland areas. The Mandini/Isithebe industrial sites and the sugarcane industry support more than 100 000 and 300 000 people respectively. The coastal dunes are rich in heavy minerals, especially oxides of titanium. Richards Bay Minerals has extensively mined the dunes to the north of Richards Bay.

A wide variety of fish and shellfish are targeted by recreational and commercial fishers, but over-exploitation has caused the decline of some reef and linefish stocks. There is an important prawn fishery centred on the Tugela Bank and a land-based prawn mariculture operation in the region.

Concern has been expressed about pollution in the region, particularly sewage and industrial effluent pipelines discharging into the sea.

With the correct precautions and effective planning and control, the mix of industry, mining, agriculture, forestry, and nature- and culture-based tourism could provide a robust and sustainable economic foundation for the region.

Issues: Zululand Coast

Our National Heritage

• Physical and equitable public access to resources is limited by poor infrastructure and nature conservation policies that restrict access to traditionally harvested resources.

Coastal Planning and Development

• Unemployment is high in disadvantaged coastal communities.
• Local communities currently derive little economic benefit from the coast.
• Job creation and entrepreneurial development opportunities are inadequate.
• There is a need to balance and integrate industrial development with nature conservation and the needs of marginalised communities in the region (particularly necessary in the Richards Bay area).
• Establishment of coastal tourism and recreational facilities is uncoordinated and unregulated.
• Nature-based coastal tourism and recreational opportunities are insufficiently developed.
• Opportunities for appropriate tourism and recreational development around coastal lakes are not optimised.
• Safe and accessible bathing areas are limited.
• The potential exists for heavy mineral mining and industrial development, but the associated impacts need to be carefully considered.
• Port-related development opportunities should be actively explored.
• The significant erosion of Richards Bay beach due to port development needs attention.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

• Better control of air pollution from industry and sugarcane burning is required.
• Industrial effluent discharged into rivers and offshore should be strictly monitored and controlled.
• Coastal waters are polluted by ballast water discharge and oil spillages from ships.
• Industrial pollution around Richards Bay constrains tourism development.

Natural Resource Management

• There is a loss of biodiversity due to single crop farming and commercial forestry.
• There is inadequate protection of sensitive coastal dunes.
• Insufficient marine and terrestrial areas are conserved.
• Concern exists about depletion of living marine resources, particularly inter-tidal organisms and certain linefish.
• Poor catchment management and sugarcane cultivation on river banks causes negative impacts on rivers, lakes, estuaries and the coast.
• Soil erosion in catchment areas causes siltation of river mouths.
• Forestry lowers the water table and could lead to salt-water intrusion.
• The impacts of dune mining need attention.
• There is insufficient recognition of the value of indigenous knowledge.
• Herbalists need education on sustainable utilisation of natural resources.

Governance and Capacity Building

• Public apathy exists because there is no sense of ownership.
• There is a lack of capacity, resources and skills to administer existing regulations.
• Recently introduced regulations are impractical.
• There is a lack of co-ordination between Government and non-government stakeholders and between local and tribal authorities.
• Use of off-road vehicles and jet skis is not sufficiently regulated.
• The process of addressing situations where people have been forcibly removed from coastal areas, in some cases for the sake of conservation, needs to be speeded up.
• User conflicts occur between industry, recreational, commercial and subsistence users.
• Unauthorised immigration from Mozambique occurs.

uThungulu: Maputaland Coast

The Maputaland coastal region is well known for its natural features and scenic beauty. It stretches 179 km from the mouth of the St Lucia estuary to the border between South Africa and Mozambique, just north of Kosi Bay.

The region has a warm sub-tropical climate and is occasionally exposed to summer tropical cyclones. Mean annual rainfall is 1 300 – 1 400 mm, and occurs throughout the year.

The warm coastal waters are the only truly tropical waters in South Africa. The region supports extensive wetlands. It has diverse wildlife, including whales, sharks, crocodiles and hippopotami.

Sodwana Bay is one of the prime areas in South Africa for gamefish, such as black marlin and sailfish. The beaches provide important nesting sites for loggerhead and leatherback turtles.

The region is characterised by large inter-connecting lakes, high forested dunes, sandy beaches and low cliffs. The St Lucia lake and estuary run parallel to the coast for 60 km and form the largest estuarine system in southern Africa.

The southernmost coral reef system in the Indian Ocean and deep, steep-sided submarine canyons, possibly remnants of ancient river mouths, are located a few kilometres from the shore. These marine features fall entirely within the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park, which includes the St Lucia Park and the Maputaland Marine Reserve.

Vegetation in the wetland areas includes mangroves, swamp forests and reeds. Tall, forested coastal dunes are also features of this region.

The three Magisterial Districts of the Maputaland Coast had an estimated population of 502 000 in 1995, with St Lucia Village being the only sizeable town along the coast. A significant feature of the region is the poor infrastructure (only 5% of the population have access to proper sanitation). The region is dominated by rural subsistence activities.

The economy is based primarily on subsistence agriculture and the sale of handcrafts at the tourist centres of Sodwana and St Lucia. SCUBA diving is an important activity along the Maputaland Coast, especially at Sodwana, which is visited by over 60 000 divers annually. There is extensive recreational and subsistence fishing in the region. Traditional fish traps are used, especially in the vicinity of the Kosi Bay lake system. There is heavy mineral mining north of Richards Bay, and a controversial proposal to mine the eastern shores of the St Lucia Park.

The beautiful scenery and natural features, such as the lakes, reefs, wildlife and warm seas, give this region considerable potential for nature-based tourism. With appropriate planning and the development of infrastructure, this region could provide an important economic base for nature- and culture-based tourism for the benefit of coastal communities. This is the focus of the Lubombo Spatial Development Initiative that has commenced in the region.

Issues: Maputaland Coast

Our National Heritage

• Physical and equitable access to resources is limited by poor infrastructure, nature conservation policies and forced removals from ancestral lands.
• There is a lack of access to prime land.
• There does not appear to be equitable access to diving concessions.
• Quota allocations are perceived to be discriminatory.

Coastal Planning and Development

• Local communities currently derive limited economic benefits from the coast.
• The area is generally under-developed.
• There is a high concentration of people on limited land.
• No economic development framework exists.
• Unemployment is high, especially amongst disadvantaged communities.
• There is insufficient investment in job creation.
• Socio-economic circumstances have resulted in an increase in crime.
• Conservation objectives dominate over economic development objectives.
• A perception exists that an insufficient portion of revenue generated (e.g., park fees) is reinvested locally.
• No forums exist to guide development.
• Business interests are not represented on development forums.
• Development is hampered by confusion over land claims.
• Implications of the Lubombo road corridor need careful consideration.
• Potential exists for nature-based coastal tourism.
• A lack of infrastructure and services negatively affect community development and the potential development of the tourism industry.
• Limited access hinders tourist exposure to natural assets.
• Potential for heavy mineral mining exists but needs careful assessment.
• Design and location of buildings should take account of potential climatic discomfort, heat stress and tropical cyclones.
• Cultural assets (e.g., Kosi fish-kraals) need to be protected.
• The right to conduct religious ceremonies has been denied.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

• Large quantities of sediment result in murky water along the coast at times.
• There is unsightly litter in an otherwise largely pristine area.

Natural Resource Management

• There is a need to identify and manage priority areas for protection.
• Management of existing protected areas and burial sites needs to be improved.
• The area has high natural heritage value.
• The air quality is pristine.
• Poor catchment management impacts negatively on the coastal environment and lake systems.
• The character of the coastal lakes may be changed by excessive sedimentation.
• Closure of the St Lucia estuary affects the estuary's ecological role and function.
• There is a need to maintain the natural exchanges of sediment between beach and ocean, and beach and dunes.
• There is over-exploitation of natural resources, particularly fish, reeds and forest products.
• There is excessive regulation of subsistence and small-scale commercial fishing
• Offshore trawling compromises the recreational fishing industry.
• There is a need to control diver impacts on reefs.

Governance and Capacity Building

• People do not really have a sense that the coast belongs to them and that they have a role to play in its management.
• There is very little public participation in management and decision-making.
• There are poor relations between local communities and conservation agencies.
• Too many forums exists, with insufficient communication between them.
• Confusion and lack of clarity exists over regulations.
• Development applications take considerable time to process.
• Use of boats and off-road vehicles is not effectively regulated.
• Staff of controlling authorities have inadequate knowledge and understanding.
• There is a lack of Governmental support to resolve land claims.
• The important role of traditional leaders and communal tenure systems needs to be recognised in the formal planning and management of the coast.
• There is poor co-ordination between sectors within Government and with the private sector.
• User conflicts occur between nature conservation, recreational and subsistence users.
• South Africa and Mozambique do not share a consistent and complementary policy.
• Unauthorised immigration from Mozambique occurs.

Prince Edward Islands

The Prince Edward Islands - Marion and Prince Edward islands — are small, remote and inaccessible volcanic islands located approximately 2 000 km south of Cape Town, half-way to Antarctica and in the middle of the Southern Ocean. Both islands are roughly circular and have rugged coasts with steep, rocky cliffs rising vertically from the sea. The coastlines of Marion and Prince Edward islands are about 72 km and 29 km respectively. Beaches generally comprise boulders rather than sand and there are very few bays or rivers.

The weather on the islands is severe. The wind blows almost continuously, frequently reaching gale-force. Sunshine is rare and rainfall is an almost daily occurrence, which, combined with poor drainage, results in water-logged soils. For the most part, the islands are covered in peat bogs carpeted with moss and ferns, while lichens grow in the more mountainous areas. There are no trees or shrubs.

The islands are used by large colonies of sea-birds and seals for breeding purposes, and in the case of penguins, to sit out their vulnerable moulting period.

The Prince Edward Islands form South Africa's southernmost territory, having been annexed by the country in the late 1940s. Active sealing took place in the past, but since these activities ceased, the seals have been left relatively undisturbed. Prince Edward Island is totally uninhabited and is virtually pristine, but Marion Island has been used for scientific research since its annexation. The islands were declared Special Nature Reserves about ten years ago.

The main threat to these sub-Antarctic islands is the introduction of alien plant and animal species. Marion Island has been particularly susceptible to imported alien species in the past, often with disastrous consequences. Mice introduced by sealers in the mid -19th century continue to have a severe impact on the insects, a vital component in the nutrient recycling system of the island. In a misguided effort to control mice populations, cats were brought to the island about 50 years ago. This soon back-fired, as they rapidly bred out of control and started attacking the sea-birds, thus necessitating a costly campaign to eradicate the cats.

The islands' remoteness offers the opportunity for specialised tourism. The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism is currently considering opening Marion Island to limited and controlled tourism. While a financial boost would undoubtedly be very helpful to maintain the limited infrastructure, and to assist cash-strapped research projects, the impacts caused by tourists would need to be closely monitored and strictly controlled.

[ Top ]

Section C: Towards a Coastal Policy

 

Chapter 7: Some Key Policy Questions

This chapter outlines some of the most important questions that need to be considered in drawing up a Coastal Policy for South Africa. These include questions around:

• Scope of policy
• Defining the coast
• Approach to policy development
• Institutional arrangements
• Instruments for implementation
• Funding and resources
• Monitoring and review.

INTRODUCTION

Past experience with coastal management and related activities in South Africa and internationally draws attention to a number of key policy questions that need to be answered in formulating and implementing a Coastal Policy in South Africa. Seven such matters are outlined in this chapter, based on this experience.

1. What is the appropriate scope for a Coastal Policy?

2. How should the coast be defined?

3. What is an appropriate approach to policy development?

4. What institutional arrangements should be considered?

5. What instruments should be used to implement the policy?

6. What funding and resources are needed?

7. How should the policy be monitored and reviewed?

Additional questions are highlighted under each section, in order to promote discussion and debate. You are invited to give feedback on these questions, and on any other questions of concern to you. Only by giving careful consideration to such key policy questions can a relevant and practical policy be developed.

1. SCOPE OF POLICY

The first area of strategic choice concerns the scope of policy. International experience emphasises the importance of maintaining a strategic focus in developing and implementing a coastal management programme. The programme must be selective about which issues to address, and where and when to address them. Programmes fail when they try to do too much at once, or are spread too thinly. The scale, scope and complexity of coastal policy usually increases through the successive completion of policy goals and objectives. Each stage of completion is called a "generation".

Typical issues addressed by first generation programmes internationally have included shorefront development, public access, hazard reduction, habitat protection and marine protected areas. While fisheries and water quality are always important problems, they tend not to be the focus of national coastal programmes, but continue as sectoral programmes. In developing countries, national coastal programmes have often found it necessary to address the priorities of basic needs provision, such as water supply and sanitation. Although these areas are adequately covered by other policies in South Africa, it is important that the Coastal Policy does have a developmental focus.

Key Questions

• Is the focus on optimising coastal development opportunities an appropriate one for the Coastal Policy?
• Does this document have an appropriate scope and realistic aims?
• Are the key issues outlined in this document the appropriate ones?

2. DEFINING THE COAST

Defining coastal boundaries is a challenge confronting all coastal management programmes. Few national policies have defined coastal boundaries uniformly throughout the country. A variety of landward and seaward boundaries have been used to define the coast for different activities in South Africa (see Figure 2). It is increasingly recognised that different definitions of the coast should be used to serve various analytical and implementation purposes, at different scales of time and space. Most national coastal policies have tended to provide guidance and broad parameters under which provinces and districts set more specific coastal boundaries, depending on the management goal.

Key Questions

• How should the coast be defined in a Coastal Policy for South Africa?
• Should provincial or local authorities be given the task of setting different landward coastal boundaries for purposes of planning and administration (given that setting seaward boundaries is a national responsibility)?

3. APPROACH TO POLICY DEVELOPMENT

Internationally, there is considerable variability in the extent of centralisation and prescriptiveness in national coastal policies. In countries with federalist systems (e.g., the United States and Australia), national coastal policy is frequently facilitative, often including national level funding and technical support. Broad principles are recognised, goals and objectives are set, and mechanisms are established to facilitate detailed planning and implementation at lower levels of Government. In such systems, coastal management programmes are often seen as essential for national–local co-ordination, and for balancing national and local interests. In countries with centralised Governments (e.g., Sri Lanka), national policy is typically more prescriptive.

In South Africa, past experience has shown that prescriptive and control-based approaches to policy implementation are far less likely to be effective than facilitative approaches. In addition, for policy to be effective, it should emphasise the economic and social benefits that can be derived from the coast, as well as the need to protect the coastal ecosystems on which those benefits depend. In ensuring access to coastal resources, policy also needs to ensure that the needs of historically disadvantaged communities are addressed.

Choices also need to be made about mechanisms to ensure effective participation by a broad range of interested and affected parties in coastal management. Creating meaningful opportunities for public participation in policy formulation and implementation is seen as essential by coastal management programmes around the world. National programmes have also emphasised the importance of public education. In developing countries, the Government plays a central role in providing education, while in the United States and Australia other role-players such as non-governmental organisations do much of this work.

Finally, capacity building of Government agencies and other key role-players has been seen as important. Capacity building is one of the key pillars of the Australian policy, and in Sri Lanka, Ecuador and the Philippines, training of communities and local level officials has been a major priority. In addition to education and training, capacity building can include budgetary allocations, changes in structures and personnel, and assistance for managing consultants.

Key Questions

• To what extent should coastal management be centralised or decentralised?
• Is a facilitative or a prescriptive approach more appropriate for the Coastal Policy?
• How should the participation of individuals, community organisations, non Governmental organisations and research institutions in coastal management be facilitated?
• How should historically disadvantaged communities be involved and their needs met?
• What programmes should be instituted for public education, awareness and capacity building of those centrally involved in coastal management activities?

4. INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS

A major area in which strategic choices have to be made is that of determining appropriate institutional arrangements for the implementation of the Coastal Policy. Choices need to be made about the exact powers and functions of different spheres of Government, including national, provincial and local spheres. Coastal management encompasses functions that currently involve national, provincial and local responsibilities. Therefore the devolution of powers and functions is a key strategic issue.

International experience

Experience internationally has highlighted two key institutional aspects that need to be addressed:

1. The location of the lead agency for coastal management, which has been located in Government departments varying from Environment, Commerce and Fisheries to the President's Office.
2. The development of co-ordinating mechanisms to promote and strengthen inter-agency collaboration, thereby reducing rivalry and conflict, minimising duplication, providing a forum for conflict resolution, promoting policy integration and ensuring monitoring and evaluation of the overall programme.

Experience has shown that it is more effective to use existing institutions wherever possible. Building capacity to take on new roles is also more cost-effective than setting up new structures. Because of the inter-sectoral nature of coastal management, improving co-ordination between actors and fostering strategic alliances between relevant Government agencies, the private sector and civil society is of central importance. Only where absolutely necessary have additional structures and procedures been established for more effective implementation.

South Africa

Given the nature of the national-provincial-local framework, as well as the Constitution and other legislative and policy directives, a number of policy options and choices will need to be considered for the different spheres of Government and in the different coastal provinces.

National Sphere

• Designation of a lead agency. This is assumed by many to be the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT), but this has been questioned by some parties, due to the perceived weakness of the DEAT.
• Strategic alliances with the lead agency. Departments such as Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF), Trade and Industry (DTI) and Land Affairs have been suggested as possible departments to form a strategic alliance with the lead agency to strengthen strategic political support, resource allocation and capacity.
• Creation of a new Coastal Co-ordinating Commission. This Commission would be located above the Ministries and would be primarily responsible for checking compliance of line Ministries with the Coastal Policy, harmonising sectoral activities and fostering strategic alliances.
• Establishment of an Inter-departmental Council or Committee. Such a body would foster co-ordination amongst line departments, harmonise sectoral policies, approaches and activities affecting coastal areas and resources, review policies and programmes relevant to the coast and provide opportunities for joint problem-solving.
• Establishment of a non-executive Advisory Committee. This committee would advise the Government on coastal matters. It would be comprised of members from all key Government agencies, the private sector and civil society.

Provincial sphere

• Designation of lead provincial department(s). These departments would co-ordinate and implement national Coastal Policy in the provincial and local spheres of Government.
• Strengthening of existing planning and environmental departments. These departments are seen to be the primary departments providing policy, planning and management support for the coast and require the necessary resources to undertake these functions.
• Broadening the scope of "the Tribunal system". This would involve broadening the scope of the national Development Tribunal system (Development Facilitation Act, 1995) to include planning and resource management control and conflict resolution for areas such as the coast.
• Coastal Co-ordinating Commission, Provincial Offices. Sub-structures of a national commission could be established at a provincial level to ensure that actions and decisions comply with national policy.
• Creation of Coastal Working Committees. These could be created under planning or other provincial legislation to ensure the co-ordinated and effective planning and management of the land-sea interface. These committees should be comprised of key Government departments, the private sector and civil society.
• Creation of Advisory Committees. These could advise the relevant decision-makers on coastal matters relevant to the province. These committees should be comprised of key Government departments, the private sector and civil society.

Local Sphere

• Creation of regional/local Coastal Working Committees. Technical committees could oversee, manage and monitor development proposals and other activities in local coastal areas. Committees should include, where appropriate, representatives of all interested and affected parties.
• Development of User Groups/"CoastCare" Groups. Local and community-based interest groups could be established and supported to assist relevant Government agencies with co-management of local and regional coastal resources.
• Development of "hidden capacity". Existing staff in local Government should, where practical, be "retrained" or "redirected" to assist in coastal management efforts. Larger and better-resourced metropolitan or local authorities should assist smaller, less well-resourced local authorities with coastal management skills and other forms of support.

Note: In Chapter 10, the possible combination and/or variation of the institutional options addressed above are further explored and specific proposals made.

Key Questions

• Should South Africa be pursuing a coastal management approach in which all functions are consolidated into one department, or should the emphasis rather be on better co-ordination of existing Government departments?
• What institutional structures would be appropriate for implementing the Coastal Policy, given the above choice of approaches?
• In which sphere of Government should the major decision-making power lie with respect to coastal management?
• What mechanisms should be used for co-ordinating or consolidating (dependent on the above choice) the sectors concerned, e.g., Inter-agency Committees?

5. INSTRUMENTS FOR IMPLEMENTATION

Strategic choices need to be made about which instruments to use in implementing the Coastal Policy. These choices are informed by programme objectives, and whether the preconditions exist for the effective use of particular instruments. Coastal management programmes internationally use a variety of instruments for policy implementation. These can be summarised according to the following categories:

1. Legislation and regulations. These are prescriptive and carry penalties for non-compliance (e.g., permits, prohibitions, allocation of user rights). There has, however, been an international shift away from a regulatory approach to a more facilitative one.

2. Direct development. This includes proactive actions and construction of physical works (e.g., shoreline protection works, public access points, public facilities at beaches, or habitat creation or rehabilitation).

3. Education and training. This is to increase awareness and build capacity for policy implementation and to encourage participation in initiatives and compliance with regulations. It includes effective communication and information exchange.

4. Research and monitoring. This is to track problems, identify solutions and provide feedback on how successfully policy is being implemented.

5. Changes in governance procedures. This includes clarification of procedures, new structures and appropriate interactions with stakeholders.

6. Economic instruments. This includes investment incentives, taxes and fines.

7. Conflict resolution mechanisms. This includes appeal procedures for challenging decisions on allocation or permitting. It focuses on collaborative, consensus-based problem-solving.

8. Participation of user/interest groups. Participation in coastal management.

To date, the Coastal Management Policy Programme has focused attention primarily on possible legal and institutional arrangements that might be used to implement a Coastal Policy. Attention has also been given to the participation of user and interest groups in such arrangements, and to possible conflict resolution mechanisms. Further attention will be given to a number of the other possible instruments for policy implementation in the next phase of the programme (see Appendix 3).

Key Questions

• Which combinations of the above instruments should be used in implementing the Coastal Policy?
• How can a balance be maintained between regulatory and facilitative instruments?

6. FUNDING AND RESOURCES

Financing national coastal programmes is always a challenge. Unless a coastal management programme becomes part of mainstream Government work, with a regular, recurrent budget, it will never be locally supported or sustained. In developed countries, local budgets for coastal management activities are often supplemented by national Government funding. Maintaining national Government support for the devolution of funding requires that the programme enjoys broad-based public support. In developing countries, national budgets are often supplemented by grants from donor agencies. External funding occurs on a long-term basis usually only where benefits to the donor agencies or nations are perceived.

In South Africa, it needs to be recognised that there is a scarcity of resources to support decision-making and policy implementation. The Coastal Management Policy Programme has benefited up to this point from generous financial support from the British Government. A powerful effect of the Coastal Policy could be to influence the values and ideas that drive local policies and programmes which have resources, e.g., Spatial Development Initiatives (SDIs), industrial policy and infrastructure programmes. For policy implementation, it is essential to have dedicated allocations to specific coastal management activities and projects in the budgets of local authorities and the four coastal provinces.

The potential of public-private sector partnerships and private sector investments to supplement scarce Government resources and to promote efficient, effective and sustainable management efforts should also be investigated. While resources for coastal management should ideally be evenly spread, management methods should be designed to work in an under-resourced context in regions of our coast.

Key Questions

• What sources of Government funding could be drawn on in implementing the Coastal Policy?
• How can budgets of other initiatives be influenced to promote coastal management objectives?
• What external funding is available and how could this best be obtained and used?
• How can the resources of the private sector be drawn on in coastal management?

7. MONITORING AND REVIEW

Finally, consideration needs to be given to how to ensure a continuing cycle of improvement in implementing the Coastal Policy. Most national coastal programmes have statutory requirements for review and readjustment, using monitoring and evaluation mechanisms. The aim is usually to track the impact of a programme, to ensure continual improvement and to promote accountability. Standards for coastal management monitoring and evaluation are not yet well established internationally. There is, however, considerable effort underway to develop a common methodology for monitoring and evaluation, so that experience can be more effectively shared.

Although monitoring and review have been mentioned in previous environmental policy documents in South Africa, these aspects have never been adequately addressed. Because monitoring occurs at different scales and involves many dimensions, it needs to be carried out by a network involving scientific researchers, information systems, community role-players and Government. Monitoring should focus both on the state of the coastal environment (biophysical, institutional, social and economic) and on the success of policy implementation through coastal management initiatives, measured against policy objectives and performance criteria.

Key Questions

• What mechanisms for monitoring, evaluation, review and readjustment should be built into the Coastal Policy?
• How can such mechanisms be provided for through appropriate institutional arrangements?

The next chapter sets out the vision towards which a Coastal Policy should aim, and the principles on which it could be based.

[ Top ]

Chapter 8: Vision and Principles

This chapter lays the groundwork for the goals and objectives in Chapter 9, by setting out a framework within which they are formulated. This includes the following sections:

• Towards a vision for our coast
• Principles for coastal management.

INTRODUCTION

Public policy has already been referred to as providing the framework for helping society move from a point of departure (i.e., coastal issues of public concern) towards a common destination (i.e., a shared vision of the future of our coast). The Coastal Policy must be based on accepted public values and provide clear guidance for addressing issues of public concern. Agreement needs to be reached on a vision for our coast. Agreement also needs to be reached on appropriate principles, goals and objectives for coastal management. Then possible institutional and legal arrangements can be developed and considered. Choices can then be made to ensure that the policy is implemented in a practical and proactive way, that issues of concern are addressed and that the vision is realised.

This chapter proposes a vision for our coast and a set of principles for coastal management. Based on these proposals, and guided by a range of other policies and laws, possible goals and objectives for coastal management are outlined in Chapter 9. The principles, goals and objectives are central to realising the vision and addressing the issues of concern to people. In essence, they provide the foundation for achieving the ideal of sustainable coastal development. Chapter 10 outlines possible legal and institutional arrangements for implementing the Coastal Policy.

The contents of this and the next chapter draw on an extensive process of public participation, research and specialist study (see Appendices 1 and 4). These proposals need further consideration, debate and refinement before the final Coastal Policy is prepared. Your input on this document will contribute to the debate around, and the development of the policy. These proposals are presented to provide a concrete starting point for consideration and further discussion.

TOWARDS A VISION FOR OUR COAST

This proposed vision statement was developed after an extensive process of regional consultation with interested and affected parties. Between November and December 1997, 22 visioning and issues identification workshops were held around the coast, involving over 800 people from more than 200 organisations. The results of these workshops were sent to participants, and feedback was requested in writing and through follow-up meetings. A summary of the information gained from regional workshops has been presented in Chapter 6. These findings provided the foundation from which the proposed national vision was developed by members of the Policy Committee, the Project Management Team and Regional Managers.

You are requested to make comments on this proposed national vision. Based on your feedback, a final national vision statement will be prepared, discussed and agreed upon.

Proposed National Vision

• We celebrate the diversity and richness of our coast and seek an equitable balance of opportunities and benefits throughout our coast.
• We strive for a coast in which there is a balance between material prosperity, social development, spiritual fulfilment and ecological integrity, in the interests of all South Africans.
• We strive for a time when all South Africans feel that the coast is ours to enjoy in a spirit of community.
• We look forward to a time when all South Africans take responsibility for the health and sustainability of our coast in a spirit of stewardship and caring.
• We seek to guide the management of our coast in a way that benefits current and future generations, and honours our obligations and undertakings from local to global levels.

The proposed vision seeks to provide a clear statement of intent for the policy. It expresses our intention to enhance the capacity of current and future generations to realise their human potential, within the context of maintaining diverse, healthy and productive coastal ecosystems.

It is important to state explicitly that the development of the proposed national vision, as well as the principles, goals and objectives for coastal management, are based on an assumption of the need to respect and cherish the rich and diverse heritage of our coast. Different parts of our coast have distinct qualities, offering comparative and competitive advantages for future development.

The proposals in this document are informed by these varied qualities and opportunities.

To realise this vision, we need to set out the principles that guide our actions, and the goals and objectives that we are going to work towards. The next section outlines principles for coastal management.

PRINCIPLES FOR COASTAL MANAGEMENT

Principles provide the point of departure for translating our vision into practice. They are the fundamental basis for reasoning and action. These principles are seen to be "universal truths". The proposed principles must be considered as a whole – the full meaning of each principle can be realised only in relation to the other principles. The explicit focus here is on developing principles for coastal management. The Constitution of South Africa outlines a broader set of principles relevant to the wider agenda of societal development and transformation.

To achieve the ideal of sustainable coastal development, the following principles for coastal management are proposed:

Principles for Coastal Management

1. National heritage. The coast should be retained as a national heritage, with public rights to access and benefit from coastal resources.

2. Economic development. Coastal economic development opportunities should be optimised to meet basic human needs and to promote human well-being.

3. Social equity. Coastal management efforts should ensure that all people, including future generations, are treated with dignity, fairness and justice.

4. Ecological integrity. The diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems should be maintained.

5. Holism. The coast should be treated as an indivisible system, recognising the inter-relationships between coastal users and ecosystems and between the land and sea.

6. Risk aversion and precaution. Coastal management efforts should adopt a risk-averse and precautionary approach under conditions of uncertainty.

7. Duty of care. Coastal management is a shared responsibility. All people should be responsible for the consequences of their actions, and have the duty to act with care to avoid damage to others and their coastal environment.

8. Co-ordination and integration. Coastal management efforts should be co-ordinated and integrated, and conducted in an open, inclusive and transparent manner.

The next chapter proposes goals and objectives for coastal management.

[ Top ]

Chapter 9: Goals and Objectives

This chapter sets out goals and objectives for coastal management, on the basis of the vision and principles outlined in Chapter 8. The goals and objectives are arranged into five themes:

• Theme A: Our national heritage
• Theme B: Coastal planning and development
• Theme C: Pollution control and waste management
• Theme D: Natural resource management
• Theme E: Governance and capacity building.

INTRODUCTION

This chapter sets out goals and objectives based upon the vision and principles outlined in the previous chapter. These goals and objectives provide more detailed direction for achieving the vision of sustainable coastal development. They address the key issues of concern. They also apply, build upon, integrate and clarify directives outlined in other relevant policies and laws, where appropriate.

Many policies and laws are directly relevant to realising the ideal of sustainable coastal development. Among the more important of these are the Constitution, the Development Facilitation Act, the National Environmental Management Bill and the Marine Living Resources Act. Other relevant policies and laws include those relating to agriculture, biodiversity conservation, disaster management, energy, forestry, local Government, maritime activities, minerals, pollution and waste management, the sea-shore, tourism, transport and water. Furthermore, South Africa is a signatory to a number of international conventions and agreements that have an important bearing on coastal management.

Goals and Objectives

The goals and objectives have been organised in terms of five major themes:

• Theme A: Our national heritage
• Theme B: Coastal planning and development
• Theme C: Pollution control and waste management
• Theme D: Natural resource management
• Theme E: Governance and capacity building.

Under each of these themes, a list of key issues, and then a set of proposed goals and objectives, is presented. These goals and objectives should not be viewed in isolation from each other – they must be considered as a whole. No one goal or objective has greater importance than another. A number of these proposed goals and objectives are open to differing viewpoints and debate. Your attention is drawn to matters known to be the subject of debate by means of footnotes.

Your feedback on these proposals is needed to formulate the final Coastal Policy.

THEME A: OUR NATIONAL HERITAGE

Our coast is a special national heritage that should be planned and managed in the long-term public interest. All South Africans, particularly organs of State, have a responsibility to ensure that it is planned and managed in the public interest.

Key Issues

Lack of infrastructure for access Privileged few benefit from coast Inequitable access to resources Quota allocations discriminatory Interests of subsistence fishers Infringement of Admiralty Reserve

Limited pedestrian access above high water mark Exclusive use limits public access Poverty and impacts on environment Rights: private property, communal and traditional users

Goal A1: Physical Access

To ensure that the public has the right of physical access to the sea, and to and along the sea-shore, on a managed basis

Objective A1.1: Opportunities for public access shall be provided at identified, appropriate coastal locations.

• Provision shall be made for public recreation and enjoyment.
• Public access shall be directed to identified locations.
• Public facilities and services shall be provided.
• Education and awareness about public access shall be promoted.
• Historical inequities in access shall be addressed.
• Public access shall be promoted in all new development.
• Strategies to improve public access shall be developed for those areas in which it is limited.

Objective A1.2: Where appropriate, public access shall be managed to minimise adverse impacts and to resolve incompatible uses

Existing rights, including private property and traditional user rights, public health, safety and security, shall be taken into account.

• Measures shall be implemented to prevent public access from causing degradation of coastal ecosystems.
• Appropriate management arrangements shall be established.
• Sustainable financing and maintenance provisions shall be developed.

Goal A2: Equitable Access

To ensure that the public has the right of equitable access to the opportunities and benefits of the coast, on a managed basis

Objective A2.1: Coastal resources shall be allocated and used in a manner that is fair and just, with particular attention given to the needs of disadvantaged communities.

• Particular attention shall be given to the needs of disadvantaged communities and groups (e.g., women) in the allocation and use of coastal resources.
• The interests of future generations shall be protected.
• Economic, ecological, financial, cultural and administrative considerations shall be taken into account.
• The diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems shall be maintained.
• Preference shall be given to coastal-dependent uses.
• A range of beneficial uses shall be maintained.
• Options for sequential use of resources shall be retained.
• User rights shall not be granted in perpetuity.

Goal A3: State Responsibility

To ensure that the State fulfils its duties as the legal custodian of all coastal State assets on behalf of the people of South Africa

Objective A3.1: The State shall retain ownership and ensure effective management of coastal waters and the sea-shore.

• Organs of State shall consider creative options to promote effective management of coastal waters and the sea-shore, in accordance with this Policy.
• Private ownership and/or exclusive usage of the area below the high water mark shall be prevented, or allowed only if demonstrated to be in the public interest.
• Due consideration shall be given to investment and other economic opportunities.
• Consideration shall be given to extending the boundary of the sea-shore to an appropriate point above the high water mark.

Objective A3.2: The State shall effectively manage, retain and endeavour to extend the Admiralty Reserve.

• Public access to, and the protection of sensitive coastal ecosystems on Admiralty Reserve land shall both be ensured.
• Appropriate management arrangements shall be established.
• Mechanisms for extending the Admiralty Reserve shall be investigated.

Objective A3.3: The State shall retain ownership of and ensure effective management of State land along the sea-shore

• State land along the sea-shore shall not be alienated, unless in the long-term public interest.
• All coastal leases shall be re-assessed in terms of this Policy.
• Non-coastal dependent activities on State land shall be discouraged.
• Creative and effective management arrangements shall be established.
• User rights shall be non-transferable and shall revert to the State.

Objective A3.4: Coastal assets under the control of parastatal organisations shall be managed in the public interest, and coastal resources shall not be alienated for private purposes.

• Coastal management plans for parastatal land shall be prepared through a process of public participation.
• Coastal resources shall not be alienated for private or exclusive use, unless demonstrated to be in the public interest.

Goal A4: Distinctive Characteristics and Dedicated Management

To address the distinctive characteristics of the coastal system through dedicated coastal planning and management

Objective A4.1: Coastal planning and management efforts shall demonstrate that the inter-relationships between the land and sea, and between coastal ecosystems and human users, have been taken into account.

• Attention shall be given to the dynamic, high-energy character of the coast, its complex biophysical and chemical processes, and regional and local variability.
• Attention shall be given to the trans-boundary consequences of human activities.
• Public education and awareness shall be promoted.
• Coastal management expertise shall be developed.
• A risk-averse and precautionary approach shall be adopted under conditions of uncertainty.

THEME B: COASTAL PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT

Coastal planning and management should be undertaken proactively to optimise sustainable development opportunities. Our coast provides many development opportunities that are dependent on maintaining the diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems. We need to proactively identify and realise these benefits, in the interests of current and future generations.

Key Issues

Diversify coastal economies Economic development frameworks Limit development speculation SDIs and coastal management Alternative livelihood opportunities Development and land claims Tourism and benefits to locals Tourism and local cultural values Tourism and infrastructure Uncontrolled subdivision Agriculture and conservation conflicts Lack of water and development Development and use of coastal aquifers Access to traditional burial sites Archaeological sites under threat Sea level rise

Mariculture opportunities Public facilities at beaches Multiple-use of harbours Upgrade and maintain harbours Retain revenue in local area Peak resource use conflicts Urban sprawl and ribbon development Buffer and transition zones Sprawling development and amenity Informal settlements and sensitive environs Aesthetic values Inappropriate development and ecosystems Increased risk due to development Hazards Cost of maintaining protection works

Goal B1: Coast-dependent Economies and Activities

To promote the diversity, vitality and sustainability of coastal economies and activities, giving preference to those that are distinctly coastal or dependent on a coastal location

Objective B1.1: Coastal planning and management efforts shall proactively seek to realise the long-term economic development potential of coastal localities and regions.

• Local and regional economic development plans shall be prepared.
• Distinctive local coastal economic opportunities shall be promoted.
• Local job opportunities shall be promoted.
• Preference shall be given to retaining benefits in local communities.
• Multiple-use and non-seasonal dependent activities shall be promoted.

Objective B1.2: Preference shall be given to distinctly coastal economic development opportunities and to activities that are dependent on a coastal location.

• Coastal-dependent activities of national or regional strategic importance shall be given priority.
• If activities conflict, preference shall be given to coastal-dependent activities.
• Activities that are not dependent on a coastal location shall, as far as practical, be relocated inland if they are perceived to have a significant negative effect on coastal-dependent activities or the long-term development potential of a coastal locality.

Objective B1.3: A system of appropriately located and financially sustainable ports, small-craft harbours and related facilities shall be developed and effectively maintained.

• An assessment needs to be undertaken of all South African ports and harbours to clarify the strategic and functional role and functioning of each facility.
• Future port and related facility requirements shall be identified and, where necessary, protected from encroachment.
• Multiple-use of ports shall be encouraged, whilst maintaining efficient and safe operations.
• The capabilities, resources and management requirements of small-craft harbours and related facilities shall be assessed, and provision for maintenance improved.
• Creative management and sustainable financing arrangements shall be considered.

Objective B1.4: Adequate public facilities shall be provided at appropriate coastal locations.

• Public facilities shall be provided at appropriate locations to meet recreational needs and to ensure public health and safety.
• Particular attention shall be given to the needs of disadvantaged communities.
• Adverse impacts on coastal ecosystems shall be minimised.
• Sustainable financing mechanisms shall be promoted.
• Public-private partnerships shall be promoted.

Objective B1.5: Opportunities for mariculture shall be identified and encouraged at appropriate coastal locations.

• Areas with high potential for mariculture shall be identified and retained for this purpose, subject to appropriate planning and environmental impact assessments.

Objective B1.6: Coastal tourism and recreational development opportunities shall be identified and promoted at appropriate coastal locations.

• Diverse, affordable, regionally appropriate opportunities shall be identified and promoted.
• In sensitive coastal settings, strict guidelines shall be applied to ensure non-intrusive, low impact coast-dependent development.
• Benefits shall be retained for local communities, where practical.

Objective B1.7: All activities relating to coastal prospecting, mining and the exploitation of petroleum, oil and gas shall be conducted in an environmentally responsible manner.

• Ongoing adverse environmental impacts shall be remedied.
• Degraded coastal ecosystems shall be rehabilitated.
• Sequential and multiple-use of mined areas shall be encouraged.
• The planning and implementation of such activities shall be subject to Integrated Environmental Management procedures.

Goal B2: Balance and Diversity

To maintain and enhance the diversity and harmony of coastal land-and sea-scapes by maintaining an appropriate balance between built, rural and wilderness areas

Objective B2.1: Nodal development and densification of existing nodes shall be promoted to sustain the economic potential and protect the aesthetic, amenity, cultural and ecological values of coastal localities and regions.

• Urban growth boundaries shall be defined and respected.
• Development shall be directed to compact nodes.
• Subdivision of rural and semi-rural coastal property shall be discouraged.

Objective B2.2: New structures shall be designed and located in a manner that retains the visual beauty, wilderness character and associated benefits of undeveloped coastal areas.

• Undeveloped coastal areas that should be retained shall be identified in regional coastal plans.
• Visually prominent structures shall not be allowed in undeveloped coastal areas.
• Scenic and landscape values shall be protected as an economic asset.
• Development proposals in undeveloped areas shall be approved only if they are consistent with this policy and contribute to improved coastal management.

Objective B2.3: Inappropriate development in coastal areas of high agricultural potential (including commercial forestry) shall be discouraged.

• High agricultural potential coastal land, and the associated rural landscape characteristics, shall be identified and protected.

Goal B3: Design and Management of Coastal Settlements

To design and manage coastal settlements to be in harmony with local and regional aesthetic, amenity, biophysical and cultural opportunities and constraints

Objective B3.1: The design and built form of coastal settlements shall be in harmony with the aesthetic, amenity, biophysical, economic, social and cultural opportunities and constraints of coastal localities and regions.

• A philosophy of "designing with coastal processes and ecosystems, and not against them" shall be promoted.
• Coastal settlements shall be designed to promote a sense of community.
• Where appropriate, a buffer between the sea-shore and physical development shall be established.
• Viewsheds shall be maintained in as natural a state as possible.
• Preference shall be given to decreasing building heights towards the sea-shore.
• Distinct local architectural styles shall be promoted.
• Provision of urban services shall avoid negative impacts on coastal ecosystems.
• Preference shall be given to setting major roads back from the sea-shore, and to orienting minor roads perpendicular to the sea-shore at suitable locations.

Objective B3.2: Coastal settlements and associated activities shall be managed to promote and enhance the socio-economic benefits of the coastal setting and to minimise adverse effects on coastal ecosystems.

• Alterations to landforms in highly dynamic areas shall be avoided or at least minimised.
• Clearance of indigenous coastal vegetation shall be strictly controlled and minimised.
• Disposal of solid and liquid waste shall be minimised and strictly controlled, according to both assimilative capacity and logistical waste disposal considerations.
• Pedestrian and vehicle access shall be managed, particularly during peak activity periods.
• Local community involvement in coastal management shall be promoted.

Goal B4: Risk and Natural Hazards

To plan and manage coastal development so as to avoid increasing the incidence and severity of natural hazards and to avoid exposure of people, property and economic activities to significant risk from dynamic coastal processes

Objective B4.1: Coastal development shall be planned and managed to minimise disruption of dynamic coastal processes and to avoid exposure to significant risk from natural hazards.

• Features, such as beaches and dunes, that act as a buffer against coastal processes and natural hazards shall be protected.
• Activities that lead to physical disturbance of natural drainage patterns, near-shore sediment transport patterns, water quality or indigenous coastal vegetation shall be avoided or at least strictly controlled.
• Areas prone to high risk from dynamic coastal processes shall be identified and managed, to minimise the need for engineering works to protect property or people.
• Where practical, fixed structures located in hazardous areas shall be removed or relocated.
• Restoration and/or extensions of structures in hazardous areas shall be discouraged.
• Activities in high risk areas that are likely to result in significant public liability and/or ongoing maintenance costs shall be discouraged.
• A precautionary, risk-averse approach shall guide decision-making.

Objective B4.2: The potential consequences of climate change and associated sea-level rise shall be taken into account in all coastal planning and management.

• Appropriate preventative and adaptive measures shall be implemented.

Goal B5: Historical and Cultural Heritage

To preserve, protect or promote historical and cultural resources and activities of the coast, where appropriate

Objective B5.1: Coastal resources of significant historical, archaeological, cultural and scientific value shall be identified and, where appropriate, preserved, protected or promoted.

• Significant sites shall be identified.
• Guidelines for the management of sites or areas shall be developed.
• Appropriate and alternative uses of sites shall be encouraged.
• Where necessary, inappropriate uses shall be terminated and inappropriate structures removed.

Objective B5.2: Traditional and cultural activities at the coast shall be given special consideration in coastal planning and management.

• Historical claims of indigenous peoples to coastal resources shall be recognised.
• Traditional resource use practices and cultural activities shall, where appropriate, be protected against the adverse impact of modern practices.

THEME C: POLLUTION CONTROL AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

A wide variety of point and non-point source pollutants and waste enter coastal ecosystems, largely through the medium of water. This has adverse effects on coastal ecosystems and humans. Fragmented control and authority frustrate effective management. Our coast should be planned and managed to ensure that pollution and waste do not compromise opportunities for sustainable coastal development.

Key Issues

Catchment practices and water quality Informal settlements and water quality Inadequate sewage treatment Direct discharge of untreated waste Septic tanks contaminating aquifers Air and noise pollution potential

Marine disposal of effluent Ballast discharge Oil spillage from ships Effluent disposal in harbours Litter and waste on beaches and dunes Pollution affecting tourism Lack of pollution monitoring system

Goal C1: Minimisation and Control

To implement pollution control and waste management measures in order to minimise and strictly control discharges into coastal ecosystems

Objective C1.1: The discharge of all land-based point and diffuse sources of pollution that are likely to end up in coastal estuaries, ground and surface waters and the air shall be minimised and strictly controlled.

• The direct disposal of untreated waste into river systems/coastal systems and estuaries shall be avoided or at least strictly controlled.
• Co-ordination of pollution control activities in catchment areas shall be promoted.
• Discharge of hazardous waste and synthetic products shall be prevented.
• Treatment of pollution discharges at source shall be encouraged.
• Reduction, recycling and re-use of waste at source shall be encouraged.
• Economic incentives shall be used to promote waste minimisation, re-use and recycling.

Objective C1.2: The discharge of marine pollutants and waste, especially ship-board waste, marine fuels and ballast waters, into coastal waters shall be minimised and strictly controlled.

• International and national marine pollution policies and protocols ratified by South Africa shall be implemented.
• Introduction of exotic organisms into coastal waters via ship ballast water shall be prevented.

Objective C1.3: Adequate and effective anticipatory and reactive measures shall be implemented to reduce the adverse consequences of human-induced coastal pollution disasters and hazards.

• Local and regional disaster plans shall identify key roles and responsibilities.
• Potential high pollution risk industries or activities shall prepare emergency plans and codes of conduct.

Goal C2: Ecosystem Health and Human Uses

To ensure that pollution has minimal adverse impact on coastal ecosystems and their ability to support beneficial human uses

Objective C2.1: Pollution control and waste management measures shall be implemented to ensure that discharges are kept within the assimilative capacity of coastal ecosystems.

• The total loading or net effect of pollution shall be considered in allocating pollution and waste discharge permits.
• Relevant changes in key estuaries and river mouth systems shall be monitored.

Objective C2.2: The discharge of pollutants and waste into coastal ecosystems shall not be allowed to reach levels that adversely affect human health, use and enjoyment of the coast.

• Appropriate coastal water quality standards shall be set and maintained according to different uses.

THEME D: NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Coastal ecosystems provide a range of goods and services that make enormous contributions to the economy and sustain coastal communities. Maintaining the capacity of these ecosystems to provide these goods and services is vital. Our coast, and the use of its resources, should be planned and managed to maintain the diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems.

Key Issues

Development disrupts natural processes Degraded coastal habitats Invasive alien vegetation Competition for resources Depletion of coastal resources Depletion of fish stocks by foreign trawlers Offshore gill-net fishing Control diver damage to reefs Controversy over seal culling Illegal, unsustainable harvesting of coastal resources Mining restricts other activities Mined areas reduce tourism potential Mined areas – future use opportunities

Management of natural coastal vegetation Protect indigenous fauna and flora Protect sensitive coastal areas Management of existing protected areas Open space Identify priority areas for protection Extend marine protected areas Poor catchment management Uncontrolled off-road vehicle use Water abstraction from coastal aquifers Agriculture – salinisation of groundwater Responsibility for ecological damage Benefits to local communities

Goal D1: Diversity, Health and Productivity

To maintain the diversity, health and productivity of coastal processes and ecosystems

Objective D1.1: The natural functioning of coastal processes and the health and productivity of coastal ecosystems shall be maintained.

• The location of fixed structures, discharge of pollutants and waste, and other human activities shall be carried out so as to minimise negative impacts.
• Coastal planning and management efforts shall focus on whole ecosystems.

Objective D1.2: The biological diversity of coastal ecosystems shall be maintained.

• Rare and endangered coastal species shall be protected.
• Invasive alien organisms shall be strictly controlled.
• Regional biological diversity shall be maintained.
• Damaged stocks of coastal species shall be replenished.
• Community co-management of sensitive and vulnerable ecosystems shall be encouraged.

Goal D2: Coastal Protected Areas

To establish and effectively manage a system of protected areas to maintain the diversity of coastal ecosystems

Objective D2.1: An adequate and representative system of protected areas shall be established and managed to maintain the diversity of coastal ecosystems, habitats and species.

• Areas deserving protected status shall be identified and acquired by appropriate means.
• Internationally and nationally significant sites should receive priority attention.
• Protected areas shall be managed as "bench marks" or base-line indicators for regional resource management efforts.
• Protected areas shall be managed to contribute to the regeneration of fish stocks.
• Protected area management practices shall involve the public and be informed by both scientific and local knowledge.

Objective D2.2: Coastal protected areas shall be integrated across both the land and sea, where practicable.

• Coastal protected areas shall include adjacent land and sea components where practicable.
• Neighbouring human activities shall be compatible with protected area management objectives.

Objective D2.3: The intensity of human use in protected areas shall vary according to the appropriate level of protection required to meet ecological objectives, local needs and the compatibility of activities.

• Appropriate applied research shall be undertaken.
• Compatible resource uses and educational activities shall be promoted.
• Compatible traditional uses shall be promoted.

Goal D3: Renewable Resource Use

To ensure that renewable resource user practices are in accord with the regenerative capacity of coastal ecosystems

Objective D3.1: An adequate understanding of the regenerative capacity of coastal ecosystems shall be developed to guide decisions about the appropriate types, scale and rate of renewable resource use.

• Appropriate applied research shall be undertaken.
• Downstream, cumulative and synergistic effects shall be considered.
• A precautionary approach shall be adopted under conditions of uncertainty.

Objective D3.2: The use of renewable coastal resources shall be guided by the need to optimise the long-term economic viability of the activity.

• Optimal rather than maximum use of resources shall be promoted.

Goal D4: Non-Renewable Resource Use

To use non-renewable coastal resources in a manner that optimises the public interest and retains options for alternative and future uses

Objective D4.1: Non-renewable coastal resources shall be used in a manner that retains multiple-use options in the public interest.

• Efficient and publicly beneficial uses shall be promoted.
• Concurrent uses of specific resources shall be allowed where possible.
• Preference shall be given to uses that do not significantly compromise other activities.

Objective D4.2: Non-renewable coastal resources shall be used in a manner that retains options for potential future and sequential uses in the public interest

• Activities that could significantly limit or diminish opportunities for future use shall be discouraged.
• Irreversible impacts and destruction of irreplaceable resources shall be discouraged or at least strictly controlled.

Goal D5: Rehabilitation

To rehabilitate damaged or degraded coastal ecosystems and habitats

Objective D5.1: Coastal ecosystems and habitats which are substantially degraded or damaged as a result of past human activities shall be rehabilitated.

• An assessment of significantly degraded coastal areas shall be initiated.
• Attention shall be given to rehabilitating ecosystems in areas of intense human activity (e.g., ports, stormwater and sewage discharge points, industrial areas).
• A rehabilitation programme shall be prepared and implemented through a process of public participation, with the relevant organs of State playing a lead role.

Objective D5.2: Coastal developers shall rehabilitate degraded or damaged areas to acceptable standards.

• Those responsible for degradation or damage shall bear the full cost of rehabilitation.
• Alternative users, whose benefits are reduced due to damaged coastal ecosystems, shall have the right to claim compensation from those responsible for the damage.

THEME E: GOVERNANCE AND CAPACITY BUILDING

Realising the ideal of sustainable coastal development requires meaningful participation by all spheres of government, the private sector and civil society. Our coast should be proactively planned and managed to promote efficient decision-making, co-operation, co-ordination and integration.

Key Issues

Involve community in coastal management Processes for public participation Relationships – communities and conservation Local authorities lack capacity Lack of enforcement and monitoring Too many forums Insufficient communication between forums Lack of co-ordination between sectors Development plans buried in bureaucracy Ways of encouraging good development Integrate coastal management plans

Greater capacity to monitor Macro-economic policies poorly understood Partnership — government and civil society Public review of land-use planning process Lack of public awareness Lack of public pride or sense of ownership Responsibility for Admiralty Reserve unclear Inadequate conflict resolution mechanisms Need for environmental audits Consistent policy with neighbouring countries Coastal Policy to be updated Low priority of coastal management

Goal E1: Public Participation, Partnerships and Co-responsibility

To ensure meaningful public participation and partnerships between the State, the private sector and civil society in order to foster co-responsibility in coastal management

Objective E1.1: There shall be meaningful public participation in all coastal planning and management efforts.

• Particular attention shall be given to involving disadvantaged communities and groups such as women.
• Traditional knowledge shall be respected.
• The State shall actively promote open, inclusive, transparent and informative public participation processes.
• Private sector activities affecting other coastal users shall be subject to public participation processes.

Objective E1.2: Organs of State shall actively seek to foster a sense of co-responsibility by developing partnerships with the private sector and civil society in coastal planning and management.

• Public awareness of the need for partnerships and co-responsibility shall be developed.
• Community-generated projects and actions shall be encouraged.
• Alternative mechanisms for partnerships, ranging from co-management to public-private partnerships, shall be explored.

Goal E2: Capacity Building and Coastal Awareness

To build the capacity of coastal managers and interested and affected parties to promote coastal awareness and more effective coastal planning and management

Objective E2.1: A coastal management awareness, education and training programme shall be developed and implemented for interested and affected parties.

• A national capacity building framework shall be developed, co-ordinated and funded.
• Formal and informal awareness, education and training programmes shall be developed to address current and anticipated needs.

Objective E2.2: Provision shall be made to ensure that there is adequate financial support, suitably trained and experienced staff, and appropriate technical equipment for coastal planning and management.

• Organs of State with sectoral responsibilities affecting coastal ecosystems shall ensure that adequate provision is made for them to fulfil their responsibilities in accordance with this Coastal Policy.
• Creative mechanisms for securing sustainable financing, equipment and human resources shall be investigated.

Objective E2.3: An effective, accessible, co-ordinated national information system shall be designed and maintained to support coastal planning and management efforts.

• A user-friendly, cost-effective and integrated national information system shall be developed to aid coastal managers.
• Provision shall be made to ensure that all interested and affected parties have access to information.
• Specialist and technical support for Governmental decision-making shall be provided.
• Management guidelines and codes of practice shall be prepared.

Goal E3: Efficient, Effective and Co-ordinated Management

To promote an efficient, effective, co-operative, co-ordinated and integrated coastal planning and management approach

Objective E3.1: A combination of regulatory and economic instruments shall be used to promote more proactive and effective self-regulation and collective responsibility.

• Alternative models for coastal planning and management shall be explored.
• Coastal management styles that are flexible, adaptive and cost-effective shall be promoted.
• Lessons shall be drawn from traditional management practices.
• Where appropriate, but preferably as a last resort, regulatory measures shall be used to implement this policy.

Objective E3.2: Coastal planning and management decision-making and approval procedures shall be clarified, speeded up and simplified.

• The roles and responsibilities of organs of State in coastal planning and management shall be clarified.
• Where appropriate, a lead agency shall be identified.
• Coastal planning and management procedures shall be simplified and speeded up to promote efficient decision-making.
• Coastal planning and management procedures shall be accessible, simple to understand and affordable.

Objective E3.3: Institutional arrangements shall promote dialogue, co-operation, co-ordination and integration.

• Activities carried out by different sectors shall be co-ordinated and, where possible, integrated.
• Activities carried out by different spheres of Government shall be co-ordinated and, where possible, integrated.
• In order to implement this policy, legal and regulatory procedures and provisions shall be reformed where appropriate.

Objective E3.4: Conflict shall be resolved in a collaborative problem-solving, consensus-building manner.

• The focus shall be on proactive rather than reactive conflict resolution.
• Appropriate institutional arrangements shall be established to resolve coastal conflict.
• Accessible, voluntary, fair, and time- and cost-efficient conflict resolution procedures shall be promoted.
• Independent and impartial "third parties" shall assist in resolving coastal conflicts.
• Arbitration shall be used where consensus-based conflict resolution mechanisms fail.
• Attention shall be given to the appropriateness of establishing a coastal management ombudsperson.

Goal E4: International Responsibilities

To fulfil international and trans-boundary responsibilities, whilst retaining South Africa's sovereignty

Objective E4.1: International protocols and agreements relevant to coastal planning and management shall be fulfilled.

• Adequate financial and human resources shall be provided for this purpose, in all spheres of Government.
• Consideration shall be given to ratifying relevant coastal planning and management conventions, protocols and agreements to which South Africa is currently a party.

Objective E4.2: Harmonious relations shall be developed with countries whose activities directly or indirectly affect the diversity, health and productivity of South Africa's coastal ecosystems.

• Particular attention shall be given to establishing cordial relations with Namibia and Mozambique.
• Attention shall be given to establishing cordial relations and sharing experiences with other coastal African countries and international organisations involved in regional coastal planning and management efforts in southern Africa.
• The State shall actively explore our participation in the United Nations Regional Seas Programme.
• Particular attention shall be given to those countries whose citizens or activities negatively affect South Africa's coastal ecosystems or who conduct illegal activities in our territorial waters.
• Scientific co-operation amongst the international coastal research and management community shall be promoted.

Goal E5: The Process of Coastal Management

To conduct coastal planning and management activities in a manner that promotes learning through continuous research, monitoring, review and adaptation

Objective E5.1: A Coastal Management Programme shall be developed, implemented and adapted through a process of continuous research, monitoring, review and adaptation.

• A Coastal Management Programme shall be developed, implemented, monitored and reviewed, and the Coastal Policy updated every five years.
• An adaptive management and learning approach shall be promoted.
• Coastal planning and management guidelines and performance standards shall be prepared.
• Applied coastal research and monitoring programmes shall be supported by the State.
• An annual or bi-annual "State of Our Coast" report shall be prepared.

Objective E5.2: Coastal planning and management activities shall be strategic, focused and practically implementable.

• Provision shall be made to ensure adequate and sustainable financing for coastal management.
• Implementation measures shall be practical, regionally relevant, achievable and transparent.
• Pilot projects shall be established in all coastal provinces to investigate the practical implementation of the Coastal Policy.
• Initially, attention shall focus on a limited number of strategically important issues.
• Coastal management activities shall be phased in over time.

In the next chapter, possible legal and institutional models are proposed for achieving the policy goals and objectives outlined here.

[ Top ]

Chapter 10: Possible Institutional & Legal Arrangements

This chapter makes proposals for possible institutional and legal arrangements to implement the Coastal Policy. It covers:

• Factors influencing the choice of arrangements
• Possible institutional arrangements
• Possible legal arrangements.

INTRODUCTION

The previous chapter suggested goals and objectives for coastal management. To achieve such goals and objectives, appropriate institutional and legal arrangements need to be considered and the preferred arrangements put in place. This will require the participation and support of all spheres of Government, the private sector and civil society. Furthermore, it will require the harmonisation of policies and actions of institutions responsible for different aspects of coastal management.

The institutional characteristics of our coast vary considerably, especially at the local level. It is often at the local authority level where many day-to-day coastal management responsibilities are carried out. It is important to note that different regions and provinces may need different coastal management arrangements, depending on their particular circumstances and the issues to be addressed.

This chapter explores several possible institutional and legal arrangements for implementing the Coastal Policy. (Note that Chapter 7 explores some of the key questions relating to this subject.) Bear in mind that other models might need to be considered. Elements from different models could also be combined to create an alternative arrangement. You are requested to consider the practical implications of these arrangements and what might work best in your region.

The next section outlines factors that should be borne in mind when considering possible arrangements.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF ARRANGEMENTS

The following factors should be taken into account when considering institutional and legislative arrangements for implementing the Coastal Policy:

• There is limited capacity and resources at all spheres of Government, especially in remote rural areas.
• There is a trend towards a more participatory and incentive-based approach and a move away from the traditional command-and-control style of coastal management.
• There is a need for adaptive management, rather than rigid, reactive management styles.
• There is a need to adopt an holistic, multi-pronged and phased approach for the implementation of the Coastal Policy.
• There is a need to foster improved co-ordination of national, provincial and local spheres of Government involved in coastal management, both vertically and horizontally, and to comply with constitutional and other legislative requirements for co-operative governance.
• There is a need to identify clearly the responsibilities and obligations of the various spheres of Government with respect to coastal management.
• There is a need to use and strengthen existing institutions rather than to create new ones.
• Consideration needs to be given to the many related legislative and policy initiatives currently taking place which provide opportunities and constraints for implementing the Coastal Policy.
• The current transitional phase of a number of related national and provincial legislation and policy initiatives needs to be taken into account.
• There is a need to consult and build strategic alliances with key organs of State which have jurisdiction in the coast.
• There needs to be acknowledgement of the varied conditions in different coastal areas that may require different management approaches and the fact that different functions may lend themselves to different institutional arrangements.
• There is a restructuring process underway in the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism.

The next section presents some possible institutional arrangements for implementing the Coastal Policy.

POSSIBLE INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS

To promote co-ordinated and integrated coastal management, particular attention must be given to identifying the appropriate sphere of Government in which coastal decisions should be made. This task is complicated, but could be facilitated by the rapidly changing socio-political circumstances in South Africa. Of note is the need to devolve power to provincial and local spheres of Government, and the constitutional directives to promote co-operation between spheres of Government and to foster civil society participation in governance.

Three distinct arrangements for institutional co-ordination and integration are presented. These arrangements include suggestions for all three spheres of Government, including possible Government-civil society partnerships for local level management.

Note: These models are presented for your consideration. They do not represent final solutions to the challenges of coastal management. Rather, they are a starting point for discussion and further debate. You are encouraged to consider alternative arrangements. A combination of the various elements of these models is possible. Our task is to develop institutional and legal arrangements that will enable us to realise our vision for the coast, and to address the issues of concern, in a practical and realistic manner.

Model A – Coastal Commission

This model focuses on establishing a national Coastal Commission, and strengthening and formalising coastal management structures in the national, provincial and local spheres of Government (see Figure 25).

Coastal Commission

• Recognising the economic importance of the coast and the need to ensure compliance with national policies, standards and norms relevant to the coast, a Coastal Commission would be created.
• This could be achieved through promulgating a Coastal Act or amending other legislation to create a Coastal Commission.
• This structure would be located above line Ministries, preferably in an office with responsibilities similar to the current Deputy President's Office. The Commission would be answerable to the relevant office-bearer or parliament. This body should be comprised of non-governmental representation as well as appropriate experts.
• Its key functions would be to promote the ideal of sustainable coastal development, to monitor compliance of sectoral departments' policies, programmes, plans and activities with the Coastal Policy, to review proposals affecting areas of strategic importance and to act as an ombudsperson.
• Sub-structures of this Commission would be established in the provincial and local spheres of Government to ensure that activities in these areas comply with the Coastal Policy.

National sphere

The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) of national Government would be strengthened.

• Ideally, the Government agency responsible for planning (in all spheres) should be combined with the agency responsible for managing the environment.
• A Chief Directorate or Directorate would be created within the DEAT to take responsibility for integrated coastal management. For example, the existing Sea Fisheries Chief Directorate could be expanded and re-organised to take on this responsibility. Key functions in the national sphere would include formulating policies and guidelines, setting norms and standards, ensuring inter-departmental co-ordination, protection of the coastal heritage and fulfilment of our international obligations.

Provincial sphere

• A dedicated coastal office or unit would also be created within the provincial departments of environment and planning. (Note that this consolidation of environment and planning is being worked towards in KwaZulu-Natal.) Integration of these two functions would help to provide additional resources, staff and expertise for coastal management activities.
• Functions of the provincial coastal office or unit would include: the preparation of coastal management plans, identification of coastal development opportunities and sites and resources worthy of conservation, declaration and management of protected areas, review of environmental assessments of specified development activities and the programmes and plans of sectoral departments, development and implementation of coastal awareness programmes, and the incorporation of coastal considerations into the environmental implementation plans under the National Environmental Management Bill.

Local sphere

• Structures responsible for coastal management activities would be established. These would vary according to the size, location and capacity of local authority structures. For example, compare:
  • Well-resourced local authorities (e.g., metropolitan councils and sub-structures, and certain local councils, e.g., Knysna, Richards Bay)
  • Medium-resourced local authorities (e.g., certain district/regional councils and transitional rural and local councils, e.g., Port St John's, Lamberts Bay)
  • Poorly resourced, remote rural areas (e.g., Hondeklipbaai).
• Participation by all sectors of civil society (including business, resource users, recreational users and traditional leaders) in management is desirable and can assist in overcoming capacity constraints.
• Roles might vary, depending on the circumstances, issues and available resources. These could range from advisory, to "watchdog" and advisory, to active participation and even full responsibility under mandated guidelines.
• It is recognised that local Government cannot necessarily delegate its functions to another agency or committee. Certain activities could, however, be undertaken jointly. For example, participation in planning exercises (e.g., compiling Integrated Development Plans) and the allocation of specific management responsibilities (e.g., maintenance of recreational areas, patrolling estuaries and reporting offenders).

Model B – National and Provincial Coastal Units

This model focuses on enhancing and consolidating existing capacity within the DEAT, creating new structures in the provincial sphere, and fostering partnerships between civil society and the local sphere of Government (see Figure 26). Particular attention would be given to improved co-ordination of coastal management activities.

National sphere

• This would involve strengthening the capacity and enhancing the status of the Coastal Management sub-directorate within the DEAT. The current transformation process occurring within the Department provides an ideal opportunity to effect these changes. Under-utilised staff, capacity and resources from other directorates and sub-directorates could be incorporated into a strengthened Directorate or Chief Directorate. As mentioned above, an extension of the existing Sea Fisheries Chief Directorate to assume responsibility for integrated coastal management might be appropriate.
• Key functions at national level would be formulating policies and guidelines relevant to the coast, setting norms and standards, ensuring compliance with the Coastal Policy by other organs of State, education, awareness, training and capacity building, monitoring and evaluation, and publishing regular "State of Our Coast" reports.
• Input and guidance would be provided to the anticipated environmental implementation plans provided for in the National Environmental Management Bill.

Provincial sphere

• Coastal units would be established within the provincial environmental/ conservation departments or, preferably, within the departments with provincial planning responsibilities.
• Functions would include the preparation of coastal management plans, identification of coastal development opportunities, sites and resources worthy of conservation, declaration and management of protected areas, review of environmental assessments of specified development activities and programmes and plans of sector departments, development and implementation of coastal awareness programmes, and incorporation of coastal considerations into the environmental implementation plans under the National Environmental Management Bill.

Local sphere

• The local model is similar to Model A, but uses existing local authority structures to set up co-management arrangements. It will consequently vary according to regional and provincial circumstances.
• It proposes a coastal management forum comprising representatives from different sectors of civil society, business and traditional leaders.
• The functions of this forum would be to provide advice and input into the coastal management activities and decisions that fall within the ambit of local Government responsibility.

Model C – Fostering Strategic Alliances

Two strategic alliance options are presented in this model. The difference between the options relates to whether or not national departments have an extensive and well-resourced regional presence (see Figure 27).

Creating strategic links with other key national departments

• Rather than create new institutions, or propose radical restructuring within departments, this model seeks to achieve institutional co-ordination and, where possible, co-ordination and integration through fostering strategic alliances between the relatively weak DEAT and agencies such as the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) or the Department of Land Affairs (DLA).
• This option does not necessarily require new legislation but seeks to set in place mechanisms for improved co-ordination across sectors and integration of the Coastal Policy into various planning processes (e.g., Integrated Development Plans) and economic development initiatives (e.g., Spatial Development Initiatives).
• Should legislation be considered necessary, this could be done through a new Coastal Act, or inclusion of key principles into other pending legislation, such as the National Environmental Management Bill.

National sphere

• Various inter-departmental structures (e.g., committees or working groups) would be responsible for formulating policy, developing guidelines (including guidelines for monitoring and evaluation), setting standards, norms and coastal performance indicators, and developing and maintaining national information systems relevant to the coast.
• These structures would provide assistance to provincial coastal working groups.
• These structures would also take responsibility for international obligations.
• The Committee for Environmental Co-ordination would play a co-ordinating role with other relevant national and provincial departments. If necessary, a coastal management sub-committee could be created within the Committee for Environmental Co-ordination.

Provincial sphere

• A strategic alliance would be formed between the DTI, DLA or DWAF and relevant environmental or planning departments at the provincial or regional level.
• Various inter-departmental structures (e.g., committees, working groups with a specific focus, e.g., development planning) would be established to undertake relevant functions.
• Provincial coastal management plans would be prepared on the basis of national policies and guidelines.
• The adoption of national principles, standards and guidelines would be ensured in planning and decision-making. Where necessary, national guidelines would be supplemented with specific regional guidelines.
• Procedures would be established for the co-ordination of coastal matters and for conflict resolution.
• Guidelines would be provided for the integration of coastal concerns at the local level.

Local sphere

• The local model is similar to Model A and B for Option 1. The link to the provincial level of Government for Option 2 will, however, be via the National Department's regional offices.

Key Questions

• Which of the three models is likely to lead to a more co-ordinated and effective coastal management system in South Africa?
• Can elements of different models be combined to form a better institutional arrangement for your region and province?
• What arrangement is likely to be the most acceptable in terms of administrative, financial and political considerations?

POSSIBLE LEGAL ARRANGEMENTS

Two broad alternatives need to be considered. Existing and pending legislation might be used to implement the appropriate institutional arrangements, or new legislation might be necessary.

Using Existing and Pending Legislation

The key existing or pending statutes are outlined below.

The Sea Shore Act 21 of 1935

Purpose

The Sea Shore Act, although dated, is fundamental to any existing or proposed institutional arrangement for the coast. The Act is built on the fundamental Roman Dutch Law premise that the sea and sea-shore is res publicae, that is, owned by the State (vested in the State President) for the use and benefit of the public. Whilst protecting the public interest of the sea and sea-shore, it does not provide for any form of access rights to the sea-shore from above the high water mark. Furthermore, the Act also states that leases can be entered into for a number of uses of the sea and sea-shore, but that these are to be in the public interest.

Area of Jurisdiction

The Act applies only to the sea and sea-shore, that is, the area below the high water mark, up to 12 nautical miles (the territorial waters). As the coastal area is dynamic in nature and continually subject to physical changes, the Act also provides for determining the location of the high water mark.

Lead Agency/Administration

With regard to administrative and institutional arrangements, the Act makes provision for the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, or an authorised local authority, to promulgate regulations about the control and use of the sea and sea-shore. It also authorises the levying of fees for specific uses of the area. In 1995 all the key administrative provisions of the Act were assigned to the coastal provinces.

Key Questions

• Given that the Sea Shore Act needs updating to be consistent with other recent legislation:
• Should the Act simply be updated to conform with the Constitution, or should it rather be replaced by new coastal legislation?
• Should the principles of public ownership/State custodianship be extended to include areas above the high water mark?
• Has the delegation of responsibilities and functions of the Act to the coastal provinces been satisfactory?

The National Environmental Management Bill of 1998

Purpose

The Bill seeks to establish a new environmental management policy for South Africa. A major emphasis of the Bill concerns co-operative governance. It seeks to ensure that the environmental rights set out in the Constitution are protected and fulfilled. A number of instruments have been proposed to give effect to this purpose.

Lead Agency/Administration

The DEAT is the lead agent responsible for providing Government's custodianship of the environment. The Bill allows for roles by other sectoral environmental policies at both national and provincial levels of Government.

Principles

The foundation of the Bill is a set of principles in Chapter 1, which are to apply throughout South Africa. Examples of such principles are:

• Development must be sustainable
• Environmental degradation must be minimised
• Access to resources must be equitable
• Inter-Governmental conflicts must be resolved through conflict resolution procedures
• The environment is held in public trust for the people (echoing the public nature of the sea and sea-shore described above).

Instruments for Implementation

• A National Environmental Forum will be established, comprising interested and affected parties, to inform the Minister about appropriate implementation measures.
• The Committee for Environmental Co-ordination will promote the integration and co-ordination of environmental functions of organs of State and, in particular, the environmental implementation plans.
• Each organ of State must prepare environmental implementation plans.
• Environmental management co-operation agreements allow for co-management involving different stakeholders.
• The Minister can prepare model by-laws aimed at establishing environmental management systems within the jurisdiction of a municipality.

Key Question

• Do you agree that co-operation agreements allowing for co-management offer significant opportunities for improved management of the coast?

The Environment Conservation Act 73 of 1989

Purpose

The Act was originally passed to provide a basis for environmental management in South Africa. Many of its provisions are likely to be repealed by the National Environmental Management Bill of 1998. The Bill does not, however, repeal

Part V, which provides for the "Control of Activities which may have a Detrimental Effect on the Environment". Part V essentially deals with environmental impact assessment and gives the Minister power to declare either "activities" or "Limited Development Areas".

Lead Agency/Administration

The DEAT is the lead agent responsible for providing Government's custodianship of the environment.

Listed Activities

Certain activities may be declared "affected activities" and a report on the impact of the activities on the environment may be required. A list of such activities was promulgated in the Government Gazette in September 1997 and includes a number of activities which are dedicated specifically to the coast, e.g., the construction or upgrading of marinas, harbours and all structures below the high water mark.

Other activities are indirectly relevant, e.g., "public and private resorts and association infrastructure". The application of the September 1997 regulations has been delegated to the provinces.

Limited Development Areas

Part V also provides for the declaration of Limited Development Areas (Section 23). This allows for the declaration of an area such as the 1 000 m "limited area" envisaged by the 1985 "Wiley Regulations". The effect of such a declaration is that an environmental assessment is required for any new development in such an area. This section has been assigned to the provinces but it has not been put into practice.

Key Questions

• Should more declared activities relevant to coastal management be included in the list of activities?
• Should consideration be given to the declaration of Limited Development Areas, referred to in the international literature as "coastal setbacks" or "exclusion zones", to assist in the management of sensitive coastal environments?
• Do you consider it to be desirable or possible to declare significant stretches of the coast, or even the entire coast, as Limited Development Areas?

Development Facilitation Act 67 of 1995 and Provincial Planning Legislation

Purpose

The national Development Facilitation Act of 1995 sets out to facilitate and speed up implementation of development programmes and projects in relation to land, and to lay down general principles governing land development in South Africa.

Provincial planning and development legislation is currently being formulated in terms of the Development Facilitation Act (although some provinces appear less inclined to apply it than others). Consideration could be given to incorporating coastal planning principles into the general principles provided for in that Act and the related provincial legislation.

Lead Agency/Administration

Provincial spatial planning is the responsibility of the respective provinces.

Key Questions

• How best can a national Coastal Policy be formulated to take into account the different provincial planning systems?
• Should the proposed Development Tribunals be established in all the coastal provinces to provide a forum for decision-making and arbitration of coastal resource management issues?

Possible New Coastal Legislation

The following options could be considered.

Comprehensive Coastal Management Act

This would involve passing a comprehensive Act that would govern all activities in a defined coastal area. A "super coastal agency" could be required to implement such a law. Although such an arrangement has been viewed as appropriate in a number of other countries, its practicality for the current South African context has been seriously questioned and it is likely to enjoy little support amongst Governmental decision-makers.

A Framework Coastal Act

The most recent example of a Framework Act is the National Environmental Management Bill. Such an approach focuses on the development of norms to govern the actions of various role players.

A Framework Coastal Act could be built, at least in part, around the Sea Shore Act. Such an Act could preserve the philosophy and other positive provisions of the Sea Shore Act, whilst extending it and bringing it into line with contemporary needs and circumstances where necessary. For example, the changes outlined below could be made:

• The Sea Shore Act guarantees the public status of the coast by ensuring that the sea and sea-shore are inalienable. It does not, however, provide for public access to the sea or sea-shore, nor does it mention the Admiralty Reserve.
• A Framework Coastal Act could improve on the situation by providing for access to the coast, whilst respecting private property rights.
• A Framework Coastal Act could more clearly delineate the respective roles and responsibilities of national, provincial and local spheres of Government with respect to coastal areas, which at present are confusing and contradictory. It could also address contentious jurisdictional issues, such as control and regulation of critical coastal ecosystems such as estuaries.
• More specifically, such an Act could specify coastal principles, require coastal programmes to be developed, provide for appropriate institutions and interaction with other institutions (taking account of institutions under other Acts), require coastal provinces to formulate their own Coastal Management Acts and provide for incentives in this regard.
• A Framework Coastal Act could also suggest model provincial coastal management legislation which coastal provinces could adapt to meet their individual needs.

Provincial Coastal Management Acts

Coastal provinces could create provincial Coastal Management Acts to reflect their specific management requirements for the coast. These acts could be created with or without a national Coastal Framework Act.

Ensure that other national legislation is more responsive to coastal concerns

Specific coastal principles, focus or actions could be added to various national and provincial legislation and policies. Examples include:

• The Tribunals in the Development Facilitation Act could be used to resolve coastal resource management disputes.
• Coastal-specific principles could be added to the National Environmental Management Bill.
• Specific direction for coastal management could be given in terms of the new Water Act for areas such as estuaries and river mouths.
• The respective Planning and Development Bills of the coastal provinces could include specific principles, goals and objectives for coastal management.

Key Questions

• Should we even be considering new coastal legislation, given the significant amount of new environmental and development legislation in the country?
• If we accept that new legislative instruments will improve coastal management in South Africa, which is preferable — a comprehensive act, a framework act or ensuring that existing initiatives are more responsive to coastal concerns?
• If no new coastal legislation is enacted, what should be done with the Sea Shore Act, which needs to be updated?

The final chapter of this Green Paper outlines the next steps in finalising a Coastal Policy, preferably in the form of a White Paper.

[ Top ]

Chapter 11: Next Steps

This chapter outlines the next stages of the programme and identifies issues for priority action. It covers:

• Next steps
• Priority actions.

INTRODUCTION

This chapter briefly describes the next steps in formulating the Coastal Policy and draws attention to possible priority issues for action in implementing the policy.

NEXT STEPS IN POLICY FORMULATION

The next steps in formulating the policy are as follows (see Appendix 1 for further details):

September to November 1998

Meetings and workshops will be held in each of the coastal regions during this period. These gatherings will assist interested and affected parties in developing a good working knowledge of the Green Paper. They will also provide opportunities to identify matters of concern in the Green Paper and to suggest alternative policy proposals. These gatherings will seek as much agreement as possible on matters relating to the coastal regions and provinces.

December 1998 to April 1999

The regional and provincial gatherings will provide the basis for preparing a draft national Coastal Policy document that will be distributed before the end of 1998 for public comment. This draft policy will form the basis for a National Policy Event(s) early next year. The event(s) will lay the foundation for preparing a draft White Paper that will be delivered to the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. The policy formulation phase of the Coastal Management Policy Programme will be concluded at the end of April 1999. This will set the scene for Government to adopt and implement a new Coastal Policy in 1999.

PRIORITY ACTIONS FOR POLICY IMPLEMENTATION

Once the policy has been formulated, it must be implemented. A draft programme for policy implementation will be prepared by November 1998. Agreement will need to be reached with key stakeholders on the appropriate activities, time-frame and priority actions for such a programme. Every effort will be made to ensure that policy implementation occurs as soon as possible after agreement has been reached on the new Coastal Policy and its implementation programme. Many considerations will need to be addressed in the implementation programme, including:

• How can the levels of public awareness, support and participation be increased?
• How can the capacity of those likely to be involved in coastal management be improved? (This could be done, for example, by starting a training programme.)
• How can adequate financial support be secured?
• How can the appropriate institutional and legal arrangements be effectively and speedily put in place?
• How can the practical implications of policy implementation be better understood and taken into account? (This could be done, for example, by starting pilot studies in different regions and provinces.)
• What mechanisms can be put in place to improve the working relationships between relevant Government agencies and between Government, the private sector and civil society? (This could be done, for example, through public-private partnerships and co-management arrangements.)
• What incentives can be provided to implement the Coastal Policy?

Given budgetary and capacity limitations, careful consideration will need to be given to priority issues for policy implementation. Your feedback is required on what issues should be prioritised for action in the first phase of policy implementation. The following are examples of possible issues requiring priority action. Strategies consistent with the Coastal Policy could be developed, for example, to:

• Proactively identify opportunities to diversify coastal economies and optimise benefits for local coastal communities, giving specific attention to matters such as poverty reduction and creating sustainable job opportunities and alternative livelihood options.
• Promote coastal tourism and recreational opportunities.
• Identify, supplement and effectively manage State coastal assets, particularly State land next to the coast, the sea-shore and the Admiralty Reserve.
• Improve public access to the coast, whilst taking into account traditional, community and private property rights.
• Maintain the beauty and diversity of our coast, and strictly control further sprawl or ribbon development.
• Enhance the strategic role played by ports, harbours and related facilities, with special attention given to improved maintenance of fishing harbours and related facilities.
• Identify and create opportunities for mariculture.
• Establish and effectively manage a representative system of coastal protected areas, including wherever possible a land-marine connection.
• Better manage river mouths and estuaries.
• Rehabilitate degraded coastal areas and resources, for example, areas that have been extensively mined.

What issues do you think require priority action in the first phase of policy implementation? This Green Paper provides the necessary background to prepare a Coastal Policy. It presents ideas on the basic elements of a Coastal Policy, including a vision for our coast, principles, goals and objectives for coastal management, and possible institutional and legal models. These ideas need to be evaluated and discussed, and agreement sought on a suitable Coastal Policy for managing South Africa's coast. Please contact your Regional Manager for details about how you can get involved in developing a Coastal Policy for South Africa (see first page of document for contact details).

[ Top ]

GLOSSARY

Admiralty Reserve:	Narrow strips of State land, seldom more than 200 feet wide, that are dispersed along the coastline above the high water mark.
Aquaculture:	Breeding and rearing of freshwater and marine (mariculture) organisms, such as fish.
Assimilative function (or capacity):	The ability of an ecosystem to absorb substances, such as human waste and pollutants.
Biodiversity:	The number and variety of different species of plants and animals, the genetic variability within species, and diversity of habitats and ecosystems.
Coastal hazards:	Natural phenomena such as storms, cyclones, flooding and erosion that can lead to loss of human life and property damage.
Concurrent powers:	Responsibilities and functions shared by different spheres of Government.
Continental shelf:	That part of the ocean floor which slopes gently from the low water mark to a depth of 200 metres. The continental shelf is separated from the deep ocean by a much more steeply inclined continental slope.
Ecological integrity:	A diverse, healthy and productive natural system.
Economic incentive:	A motivating financial instrument, such as a tax or rebate, used to encourage a particular attitude or action.
Ecosystem:	A community of plants, animals and organisms interacting with each another and with the non-living components of their environment.
Environmental impact:	A positive or negative environmental change caused by a human act.
Equity:	Treating all people with dignity, fairness and justice.
Exclusive Economic Zone:	The sea beyond the territorial waters but within a distance of 200 nautical miles from the low water mark.
Habitat:	The natural home of an organism or community of organisms.
High-energy environment:	An area in which powerful physical processes, such as winds and waves occur.
High water mark:	The highest point reached by the sea during ordinary storms occurring during the stormiest period of the year, excluding exceptional or abnormal floods.
Integrated coastal management:	An holistic, continuous and dynamic process of sustainable use, development and protection of coastal resources.
Integrated Development Plan:	A plan drawn up by local Government to prioritise and co-ordinate development activities and investment, and to promote effective use of budgets.
Inter-tidal zone:	The area of the sea-shore between the lowest and highest tides.
Limited Development Area:	An area of restricted development in terms of the Environment Conservation Act 73 of 1989.
Low water mark:	The lowest point reached by the sea during periods of ordinary spring tides.
Nodal development:	Describes the spatial pattern of human settlement and infrastructure that is concentrated around a single point.
Non-point-source pollution:	Pollution originating from a number of dispersed sources, often associated with agriculture and urban areas.
Non-renewable resources:	Resources, such as diamonds, that are not replaced or regenerated naturally within human time-scales.
Nutrient cycling:	The process by which nutrients in the water, land and air are absorbed, consumed and processed by physical, chemical and biological processes.
Point-source pollution:	Pollution discharged from a specific fixed location, such as a pipe or outfall structure.
Precautionary principle:	Avoiding risk through a cautious approach to development and environmental management.
Productive systems:	The normal functioning of natural systems results in biological growth which is measured as productivity. Coastal ecosystems typically have high productivity.
Regenerative capacity:	The self-renewing ability of natural systems to absorb impacts caused by human activities or naturally occurring events.
Renewable resources:	Resources, such as fish, that are replaced through natural ecological cycles, or natural chemical or physical processes.
Ribbon development:	Describes the spatial pattern of human settlement and infrastructure that is "thinly" spread out along a line, such as a road or the shoreline.
Risk-aversion:	Active avoidance to possible exposure to loss of human life or property damage as a result of hazardous events or coastal processes.
Sea-shore:	The water and the land between the low and high water marks.
Sea:	Includes the water of the sea, the seabed and its sub-soil.
Setback line:	A prescribed boundary along a hazardous area (e.g., sea-shore) indicating the limit of development activity.
Species:	A group of plants, animals, or micro-organisms sharing a most recent common ancestor, with a shared set of uniquely evolved characteristics, and generally only inter-breeding with themselves.
Spheres of Government:	Different levels of Government — national, provincial and local.
Subsistence:	Describes activities on which any person or group is significantly dependent, but not necessarily completely dependent, on locally available natural resources for their livelihood.
Sub-tropical:	The area between the mid-latitudes and tropics that typically experiences a mild to warm climate occasionally influenced by tropical and temperate air masses.
Temperate:	The mid-latitude area that typically experiences a mild to cool climate occasionally influenced by sub-tropical and polar air masses.
Territorial waters:	The sea within 12 nautical miles from the low water mark.
Topography:	The surface features of land, e.g., hills, valleys, plains.
Upwelling:	Vertical movement of deeper cold water towards the sea surface resulting from strong winds, found along the west and south coasts of South Africa.
Wading bird:	A long-legged bird that typically feeds in shallow waters of estuaries and wetlands.
Watershed:	The boundary that separates different river drainage basins.
Wetlands:	Areas covered occasionally, regularly or permanently by shallow fresh or salt water.

[ Top ]

APPENDIX 1: STAGES OF THE COASTAL MANAGEMENT POLICY PROGRAMME

Stage 1: The Issues and the Vision (November 1997 to February 1998)

The programme was initiated in May 1997. Extensive consultations took place between November 1997 and February 1998 with stakeholders around our coast. These consultations succeeded in giving interested and affected parties the opportunity to identify issues and articulate a vision for the future of South Africa's coast.

Consultation with stakeholders took place in all regions along the coast. To this end, the coast was divided into thirteen regions, defined on the basis of biophysical and socio-economic factors. The programme team ran 22 workshops along the coast during this stage of the process and involved over 800 people from more than 200 organisations. Numerous additional "one-on-one" meetings were conducted with over 700 people from more than 160 organisations.

The issues and visions identified during this stage were outlined in Regional Vision Reports, and in a National Vision Report. The programme's national Policy Committee drew on the views and aspirations expressed in the Regional Vision Reports in formulating the National Vision.

Stage 2: Generating Policy Options (March to May 1998)

During this stage the programme team returned to the stakeholders in the regions. They ran more than 40 workshops and meetings, involving over 500 people from more than 200 organisations. They succeeded in establishing a broad range of policy responses to the issues and visions generated in the previous stage.

The meetings and workshops, convened on a sector by sector basis, allowed for a rich debate and expression of sectoral interests. This was a vital component in ensuring a broad base of debate in the process. The sectors included Government, business, labour, community-based organisations, environmental non-governmental organisations and the sport and recreational sector.

Further input was obtained from more than 150 written submissions received during this period. In addition, about 15 000 people regularly receive programme newsletters and mailings.

Stage 3: Assessing Policy Options (June 1998 to August 1998)

During this stage this Green Paper was drafted. The Project Management Team worked to draw together the results of the two previous stages of public participation, as well as the results of extensive parallel specialist studies.

In addition, a Task Team of specialists was convened to assist the drafters through sharing their extensive knowledge and expertise.

Stage 4: Selecting Preferred Policy Options (September 1998 to November 1998)

The aim of this stage of the programme is to debate the ideas in the Green Paper. This will be based on wide dissemination of this document, ensuring that there is a good working knowledge of it among a wide range of actors, and conducting meetings and workshops to refine its focus. There will be gatherings and meetings in each of the coastal regions and the four coastal provinces before the end of November 1998. This will provide the basis for preparing a draft Coastal Policy document that will be distributed before the end of 1998. These regional and provincial gatherings will aim to seek as much agreement as possible on a new Coastal Policy for the country.

Stage 5: Draft Policy and Implementation Steps (December 1998 to end April 1999)

In this stage, the draft policy will be distributed to the public for further comment. This draft policy will form the basis for a National Policy Event(s) in February 1999. The event(s) will aim to seek as much agreement as possible, and will lay the foundation for the preparation of a draft White Paper that will be delivered to the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. This will set the scene for Government to adopt a widely endorsed policy in 1999. This stage of the programme will also focus on developing and giving effect to recommendations for implementing the policy.

[ Top ]

APPENDIX 2: THE INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL SETTING

GENERAL MATTERS

Many organs of State, non-governmental organisations, groups in civil society and the private sector are involved in one way or another in coastal management. This involvement occurs in terms of a wide range of existing policy and legislation at national, provincial and local levels. Some of the key pieces of existing legislation are outlined in Figure 2 and a more extensive list of applicable laws is contained in Appendix 3.

Defining the coast

The term "the coast" does not refer to a distinct area or resource. There is no obvious or readily available definition of the coast, and no corresponding administrative area. Apart from the policy for off-road vehicles, there is currently no law which defines the coast as an area of concern requiring special management attention.

Previous efforts to delineate the coast as a 1 000m wide strip of land in which all activities required permit approval, failed. The reasons for this failure included the arbitrary nature of the landward boundary, which did not recognise administrative boundaries or ecological systems and inadequate administrative procedures and capacity to administer the regulations. Although a legal definition of the coast would assist in clarifying administrative responsibilities and co-ordinating coastal management efforts, the approach followed in South Africa must make sense from an ecological, administrative and management perspective.

As far as the seaward extent of the coast is concerned, it is possible to choose a number of boundaries, such as the extent of the territorial sea (12 nautical miles) or the Exclusive Economic Zone (200 nautical miles) claimed by South Africa under the Maritime Zones Act. Concerning the landward extent of the coast, there is currently no boundary in place, but the Environment Conservation Act does empower the Minister to declare Limited Development Areas, which could encompass the coast.

Coastal management as a distinct activity

Clarifying which activities fall within the ambit of coastal management is a difficult exercise. Many institutions involved with coastal management activities experience difficulty separating coastal management activities from general environmental management activities. Institutions with specific coastal management responsibilities consider coastal management to be a specialised form of environmental management. These responsibilities include the development of Coastal Policy (Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, DEAT), preparation of coastal structure plans (coastal Provincial Planning Departments/Directorates), management of protected areas or species (coastal Provincial Nature Conservation Departments, South African National Parks), management of marine pollution (Chief Directorate: Pollution Control, DEAT) and controlling the quality of effluent into rivers and the sea (Department of Water Affairs and Forestry). For most other departments, approaches and tools employed for management in coastal areas do not differ from approaches used in other areas.

Subject to a few exceptions, it is generally not easy to separate out coastal legal and institutional factors from laws and institutions that apply to the country as a whole.

Transformation of institutions and laws

The extensive law reform process currently occurring in South Africa and the ongoing restructuring of Government departments presents both an opportunity and a constraint for the Coastal Policy process. A significant opportunity exists to place coastal issues on the agenda of current related processes. Examples of these processes are those around Integrated Development Plans (IDPs), Spatial Development Initiatives (SDIs) and new laws, e.g., Provincial Planning and Development Bills.

The key constraint is that the Coastal Policy formulation process, which involves extensive participation, will only be completed by early 1999. Unless coastal concerns are highlighted and integrated into related processes, it is likely that new coastal legislation will be reactive and regulatory rather than proactive.

The restructuring of Government institutions and the establishment of new structures such as Development Tribunals provide a further opportunity for coastal issues to be integrated into planning, assessment and decision-making procedures currently being established by these institutions.

Enforcement of existing laws and regulations

Current procedures for enforcing development control and coastal management are not working effectively. It is questionable whether legal and administrative controls are ever able to change inappropriate activities and behaviour. There are lessons to be learnt from customary law principles and community-based approaches to natural resource management. In addition, the various co-management arrangements to manage coastal resources provide alternative models which appear to be more efficient, equitable and sustainable.

The key legislation affecting activities taking place above the high water mark is the body of land-use planning laws administered by the respective planning departments of national Government and the coastal provinces. These laws are in practice more significant than the environmental and nature conservation laws administered by the national and provincial departments of environmental affairs and nature conservation respectively. There is an urgent need for these departments to integrate coastal principles and a requirement to comply with coastal guidelines in the laws and procedures governing their activities.

Since the transition to democracy in 1994 there has been some attempt at rationalisation of legislation and devolution of powers relevant to the coast. In the Eastern Cape, however, there is still overlap between the legislation of the old Cape Province, and the former "homelands" of Ciskei and Transkei.

Key deficiencies in legal and institutional arrangements

There is widespread acknowledgement by Government, parastatals, and non-governmental organisations involved in coastal management that a number of key deficiencies exist in current legal and institutional arrangements for coastal management. The factors commonly identified are as follows:

1. Legislation affecting coastal management is fragmented and is administered by a variety of different Government departments and agencies. It needs to be rationalised and co-ordinated. There is an urgent need to develop a national Coastal Policy.
2. The fragmentation of laws and multiplicity of institutions involved in aspects of coastal management prevents effective law enforcement. Limited resources and personnel also make it difficult to monitor illegal or inappropriate activities taking place along the coast.
3. There is a lack of clarity regarding the roles and responsibilities of different spheres of Government with respect to coastal management activities. This is worsened by the new Constitutional order which identifies the environment as an area of concurrent legislative and executive competence.
4. There is a lack of co-ordination of coastal management efforts along the entire South African coast. There are various initiatives, planning exercises and policy processes taking place at all levels. These are not well co-ordinated and integrated. Other than the KwaZulu-Natal Coastal Working Group there are no inter-departmental committees or bodies attempting to co-ordinate activities affecting the coast.
5. There is a lack of awareness amongst the public, authorities and developers of the sensitivity and importance of coastal ecosystems and features. In addition, developers and authorities seldom consult the public on coastal planning and development matters.

Institutional capacity

Existing capacity and resources of provincial and local authorities charged with coastal management responsibilities are hopelessly inadequate.

LEGAL SETTING

The new Constitution

The new Constitution provides general direction for Government officials carrying out coastal management responsibilities, and there is now widespread responsiveness to public concerns. Overall, the Constitution has brought about a change in management responsibilities from a reactive to a proactive orientation.

The Bill of Rights chapter in the Constitution recognises the right of all to a healthy environment, respects private property rights, provides a right to information and provides for greater transparency in administrative decision-making. The chapter also relaxes the locus standi requirement by providing for the enforcement of rights by anyone acting in the public interest, amongst others. It provides for a number of socio-economic rights, including the right to housing, health care, food, water and social security.

The new Constitution provides the basic framework for environmental management in South Africa. Marine resources are specifically excluded from the list of matters of concurrent national and provincial jurisdiction, suggesting that jurisdiction over them is national. The coast is not specifically mentioned in either the concurrent or exclusive provincial list (Schedules 4 and 5 of the Constitution), suggesting that it may be national. "Environment" is designated to be a matter of concurrent national and provincial jurisdiction. There is much confusion around the question of the respective responsibilities of national, provincial and local Government for managing the coast and its resources.

The Constitution provides for co-operative Government (Chapter 3) by setting out certain "principles of co-operative Government and inter-governmental relations" (Section 41), a relevant sub-section requiring Acts of Parliament to establish and provide for structures and institutions and procedures to promote and facilitate inter-governmental relations (Section 41(2)).

In considering a possible Coastal Management Act for South Africa, it must be borne in mind that the Constitution specifically provides for a so-called "override" provision where there is potential conflict between national and provincial Government (Section 146(2)). It provides for national legislation to override provincial legislation where uniformity is required, by establishing norms and standards, frameworks or national policies. This effectively authorises a Framework Coastal Management Act.

The Constitution (Chapter 7) emphasises the potential role of local Government in coastal management. It states that one of the objectives of local Government is to promote a safe and healthy environment, and it gives local authorities executive authority with respect to certain matters in Schedules 4 & 5 of the Constitution. Local Government has thus been specifically charged with environmental responsibilities and obligations. Fulfilment of these responsibilities will require local authorities to integrate environmental principles into their activities. It will also require them to implement the suite of environmental policies (including a Coastal Policy) that are currently being formulated. In particular, the relaxation of the locus standi provisions means that the public can take legal action against local Government if they fail to exercise their environmental responsibilities.

Planning and development in the coast

The Sea Shore Act recognises the public nature of the sea- shore by vesting ownership of it in the State President, providing that it is inalienable and stipulating that leasing of the area must be for a public purpose. No provision is made, however, for physical access to the sea and sea-shore.

Land tenure arrangements are accordingly dramatically different above and below the high water mark where private (or State) and public ownership prevail respectively. Estuaries and rivers will tend to be of a public character once the new Water Act comes into effect.

As far as the area below the high water mark is concerned, the Sea Shore Act is out of keeping with current constitutional developments and new administrative frameworks.

The only legislative attention which has recently been given to the area is the Maritime Zones Act which claims maritime boundaries in accordance with international law.

By assigning the majority of the provisions of the Sea Shore Act to the provinces, national Government has in effect "given up" its custodianship role of the area. It is important to note that the recent National Environmental Management Bill specifically endorses the Government's custodianship of environmental resources. This assignment of powers may result in tensions and conflicts regarding the respective roles of national and provincial Government in administering the Sea Shore Act and other legislation relevant to the coast. Moreover, it is questionable whether such an assignment reflects the spirit of the Constitution's chapter on co-operative Government.

The Coastal Management Sub-Directorate of the DEAT does not have mostly any specific powers under the Sea Shore Act. These powers have been assigned to the coastal provinces. The Coastal Management Sub-Directorate consequently tends to play an advisory role even on major coastal developments. The only legislative measure which the Coastal Management Sub-Directorate has attempted to implement is the declaration of parts of the coast as a Limited Development Area and a policy for the control of off-road vehicle use in the coast.

There have been unsatisfactory attempts for over a decade to designate the area immediately landward of the high water mark as a "limited (development) area" under the predecessor to the current Environment Conservation Act. These attempts have failed to have any substantial impact on coastal management efforts. The limited area philosophy has been applied in an ad hoc way in certain areas. For example, some local authority legislation in KwaZulu-Natal has listed certain activities which may impact on the coast as requiring approval of the Local Council prior to proceeding.

The limited area philosophy may be complemented by the notion of an Admiralty Reserve, which exists along parts of the coastline in KwaZulu-Natal and Western Cape. The legal status of the Admiralty Reserve and its potential in furthering coastal management are not altogether clear, but are currently being investigated.

In September 1997, regulations were passed declaring that certain activities which may have a substantial harmful effect on the environment are subject to environmental impact assessments. Some listed activities are specific to the coast (e.g., constructing harbours) while others are activities carried out in the coast as well as elsewhere. These regulations seek to control undesirable activities, but are contrary in spirit to new policies and laws relevant to land planning and development.

The new approach being followed when drafting planning and development legislation is to be more proactive and seek to integrate environmental and community concerns into planning processes, minimising the need for project-specific environmental assessments.

The Development Facilitation Act (DFA) and the Local Government Transition Act (LGTA) have fundamentally changed (or are in the process of changing) the legislative and institutional landscape above the high water mark. The DFA provides for general principles for land development and conflict resolution and the establishment of necessary institutions for this purpose, including Development Tribunals. The coastal provinces are in the process of formulating provincial legislation to give effect to these institutions.

Coastal local authorities have to have regard for the LGTA, whose purpose is to provide for interim measures for the promotion and restructuring of local Government. The LGTA will eventually be replaced by the Municipal Structures Bill and Provincial Planning and Development Acts. The LGTA provides for Provincial Committees for local Government in the various provinces, forums for negotiating such restructuring, and transitional councils. Central to coastal management is the obligation for local authorities to develop IDPs under the LGTA. An IDP is a plan aimed at integrated development and management of the area of jurisdiction of the municipality concerned.

Coastal requirements are not specifically referred to, but IDPs aim to take into account the Land Development Objectives required by the DFA. The process of drawing up IDPs has been initiated in some coastal local authorities.

The Environmental Laws Rationalisation Act (51 of 1997) amends and extends certain previously "South African" legislation (including the Sea Shore Act and the Sea Birds and Seals Protection Act) to the former "homeland" areas. It does not specifically repeal previous legislation applicable in the "homelands", thereby adding to the duplication and confusion which currently exists.

Planning law at provincial level is generally in a state of flux. All four coastal provinces are in the process of developing their respective Planning and Development Bills to replace the pre-1994 planning ordinances. A new planning hierarchy is accordingly emerging.

Sensitive areas, islands and protected area legislation

Protected area legislation is found at national, provincial and local authority levels. Certain international conventions are also relevant , for example, the Ramsar Convention on wetlands. The legislation is diffuse and uncoordinated and appears not to have been formulated in terms of any overall vision or plan.

The legal status and administration of estuaries is not clear. The Lake Areas Development Act (39 of 1975) has never been effectively applied and is currently being revised. The Prince Edward Island Act applies to that island as well as Marion Island, but is outdated and needs revision.

Resource utilisation and conservation

A general characteristic is that specific resources have specific Acts dedicated to them (e.g., the Sea Fishery Act is applicable to marine fisheries, the Forestry Act to coastal forests, and so on). There are few mechanisms for co-ordinating the exploitation of these resources.

A welcome feature is that the National Water Act specifically defines and provides for "coastal marine waters" and provides for integrated catchment management.

A new Forest Bill is currently being drafted but it is not known whether it will specifically provide for coastal forests. A parastatal, SAFCOL, has been formed to take over all commercial plantations. Indigenous forests (including coastal forests) will remain with the DWAF and Provincial Environment and Conservation Departments.

With regard to marine fisheries, the DEAT produced a White Paper on Marine Living Resources in 1997 and a Marine Living Resources Act was passed in 1998. The Coastal Management Policy Programme (CMPP) could not make much impact on this initiative because of the late stage of the process.

There are, however, areas of mutual interest to both policies and efforts must be made to ensure that the Coastal Policy is consistent with and supports the relevant provisions of the Act. Should the CMPP result in policy objectives which contradict the Act, negotiations between the relevant role-players should take place and appropriate amendments made.

With regard to fauna and flora, provincial nature conservation legislation is likely to be rewritten to take into account the new provincial dispensation and the re-incorporation of the previous coastal "homelands" in KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape. The extraction of mineral resources has been specifically excluded from the list of affected activities under the September 1997 regulations on environmental impact assessments. Minerals extraction has a major impact in the coast, but mining legislation (the Minerals Act) and administration have remained outside moves towards integrated environmental management. This sectoral attitude may frustrate attempts to require all Government departments to implement the Coastal Policy.

In 1996 South Africa ratified the Biodiversity Convention, which has important implications for the conservation of coastal and marine biodiversity. No legislative initiatives have as yet been undertaken in this regard.

With regard to cultural and historical resources, e.g., shipwrecks, the National Monuments Act is likely to be replaced by the Draft Heritage Bill. Provincial Councils will be given more authority over cultural resources.

The Communal Property Association Act makes provision for communities to form a legal entity in order to acquire, hold or manage property on a co-operative basis. This legislation is relatively new, but may provide opportunities for sections of coastal land to be allocated and managed by a group of people. The absence of any environmental criteria for allocation or management of land in terms of this Act has implications for implementing a Coastal Policy in such areas.

Legislation pertinent to pollution of marine and coastal waters

The numerous and varied Acts which apply to coastal and marine pollution (see Appendix 3) are administered by a number of Government departments. This includes the Department of Transport — DOT (while a potential pollutant is on board a vessel), the DEAT (when the marine or coastal environment is polluted), the DWAF (land-based sources), the Department of Minerals & Energy — DME (off-shore mining activity) and the Department of Health — DOH (international health regulations).

The South African Maritime Safety Authority Act (5 of 1998) provides for a statutory authority which will take over many Department of Transport functions.

INSTITUTIONAL SETTING

Implications of current national institutional arrangements for coastal management

Numerous national Government departments are involved in aspects of managing the coast and its resources in the course of carrying out their functions. Except for the DEAT, DWAF and to a lesser extent the DME, most national Government departments do not consider coastal management responsibilities to fall within the ambit of their work. The fact that activities they manage are located in the coastal environment or may affect the coast, does not alter their management approach.

As a result of the absence of policy guidelines, coastal framework legislation and a single co-ordinating body to provide direction and guidance, there is administrative confusion and inefficiency, duplication of efforts, gaps in management and an uncoordinated approach to coastal management.

In general, Government departments at all levels identify the DEAT as the lead authority responsible for coastal management. The Coastal Management Sub-Directorate of the DEAT is located in Cape Town, and there are no offices dedicated to coastal management in other coastal provinces. The Sub-Directorate has responsibility for a wide range of coastal management-related activities. Although its prime concern is policy formulation and co-ordination of coastal activities, much time and effort is spent providing comment on the array of new draft policies and legislation and responding to public queries to the Minister. The Sub-Directorate has limited legislative powers as they have mostly been assigned to the coastal provinces.

The Coastal Sub-directorate has extensive responsibilities in the field of coastal management. In order for it to fulfil its responsibilities, however, additional staff and resources at national and provincial level will be required. Alternatively, certain functions will need to be taken on by other departments and authorities at the provincial and local level.

The only resource over which the DEAT has substantive control is marine fisheries. This domain is outside the ambit of the Coastal Management Policy Programme because a new Marine Living Resources Policy has been prepared (White Paper and Marine Living Resources Act), setting out the institutional arrangements for access to and management of marine resources. Other coastal resources, such as coastal forests, water, minerals and agriculture, are administered by the DWAF, DME and the Departments of Land Affairs and Agriculture respectively. Although management of these resources has been undertaken on a sectoral basis, the establishment of inter-departmental committees and working groups has occurred to some extent.

Pollution of coastal waters falls under the jurisdiction of different national departments (DOT, Sea Fisheries Institute, of DEAT, DWAF and DME, as well as parastatals such as Portnet).

This fragmentation of pollution control across different pieces of legislation and within different departments is considered a key weakness. In this respect, the Marine Pollution Division within DEAT advocates the need for a lead agency for pollution control and management in order to streamline activities and to improve co-ordination and management. For example, the entire water quality management function should be located within DEAT rather than being partially located in DWAF. Its main functions should be policy formulation and the setting of national standards, with implementation occurring at provincial level.

A further activity of a centralised pollution control unit would be the establishment and maintenance of a database. Some effort has been made to rationalise pollution control generally by establishing a Pollution Control Chief Directorate within the DEAT. This Chief Directorate has taken over air pollution from the DOH, and is in the process of taking over marine pollution functions from the Chief Directorate: Sea Fisheries of DEAT.

Most of the legislation governing land-use planning, economic development and resource use and exploitation in the coast is administered by other national and provincial departments. The DEAT's decision-making powers regarding coastal activities are thus fairly limited.

The new Water Resources Act makes provision for the establishment of catchment management agencies and local level water committees. It also adopts an holistic and integrated approach to catchment management. The structural model proposed for catchment management could be adapted for coastal and estuarine areas. These new structures also have the potential to play a positive role in co-ordinating management activities which influence the coast.

Implications of current provincial institutional arrangements for coastal management

There is no single provincial Government department responsible for coastal management. Ongoing reshuffling of the provincial authorities charged with environmental management functions and a reduction in annual budgets suggest that environmental authorities do not enjoy a high status. This has hindered the development of proactive and efficient provincial environmental management authorities and explains the lack of clear procedures and systems for assessing, monitoring and managing activities which affect the coast. Environmental and nature conservation directorates and sub-directorates within different provincial departments are involved in various aspects of resource management and protection, and provide input to planning and development processes. With limited resources and personnel available for environmental management generally in the provinces, the separation of the functions of nature conservation and environment adds to administrative inefficiency and delays.

In all the provinces, Government departments involved in land-use planning and development control are key players in coastal management.

The promulgation of the DFA, and the LGTA, and new provincial planning legislation have, however, resulted in much confusion amongst officials charged with planning responsibilities. These legislative changes have led to the dismantling of various planning boards and the establishment of new institutions. It will take some time before the procedures, assessment criteria and modus operandi of these new institutions are operational. In the meantime, this lack of clarity regarding planning and regulatory procedures provides a gap for inappropriate development to take place in sensitive coastal areas.

There is a lack of co-ordination amongst Government departments involved with aspects of managing the coast and its resources. In addition, the restructuring process has in some instances led to overlaps and contradictions in management responsibilities. For example, development activities in coastal dune areas are controlled by a number of different departments, depending on the activity in question.

There are various initiatives taking place which have far-reaching implications for the future use and management of the coast. For example, in the Western Cape, the Directorate of Planning in the Department of Housing, Local Government and Planning is in the process of preparing a provincial policy concerning land-use planning in the mainly rural areas of the coast. In KwaZulu-Natal, the Provincial Growth and Development Strategy identified the need to prepare a coastal management plan. This is being co-ordinated by the Department of Local Government and Housing, with input from the Departments of Economic Affairs and Tourism and Traditional and Environmental Affairs. The SDIs of the Department of Trade and Industry, many of which are located in the coast, have strong political support and are more concerned with short-term economic goals than long-term sustainability issues. It is of concern that these coastal initiatives are taking place in the absence of national policy guidelines or framework legislation which would provide direction and ensure conformity with national principles, norms and approaches.

Concurrent functions set out in Schedule 4 of the Constitution are not clearly understood on the ground and may not be practical to administer. While certain environmental functions such as approval of environmental impact assessments, environmental management plan reports and waste management have been delegated to provincial level, many proposals are still assessed from a purely nature conservation perspective.

Co-ordination and communication between DEAT and other national and provincial environmental departments is considered inadequate. Although the Minister and Provincial Executive Councils (MinMEC) provide a forum to discuss environmental matters in general, coastal management issues are only one of a number of subjects addressed. The proposal that the ICCOAST Committee be given formal status may provide a forum for enhancing communication between DEAT and other national and provincial departments responsible for coastal management activities.

Several new institutions have been created in terms of the new wave of legislation that has been promulgated following the democratic elections in 1994. These include Development Tribunals, District Councils and catchment management agencies. While none of these institutions have coastal issues as a focus, opportunities exist to broaden their scope to consider coastal principles and guidelines when executing their functions.

Several provincial inter-departmental committees exist to foster improved communication and co-ordination amongst Government departments on a number of issues. Most of these are informal, however, and meetings take place on an irregular basis.

The only existing committee that has a purely coastal focus is the KwaZulu-Natal Coastal Working Group, established to provide inter-departmental liaison on coastal policies and a forum for discussion on spatial planning and development control, as well as information for the public.

Implications of current local Government institutional arrangements for coastal management

The role and powers of local Government are set out in section 156 of the Constitution and are further defined and elaborated on in the LGTA and the White Paper on Local Government (1998). The duties and powers of local Government are wide-ranging. Of particular relevance to the Coastal Management Policy Programme are those relating to strategic planning through IDPs, setting Land Development Objectives in terms of the DFA, service delivery and addressing the needs of the poor. Clearly, local authorities have wide-ranging functions and decision-making powers. Execution of these functions in coastal areas could alter the nature and character of the coastal environment if activities are undertaken without due consideration of coastal principles and guidelines. Coastal framework legislation is needed to guide and regulate activities undertaken or authorised by local authorities.

The Constitution provides for different categories of local Government. Although District / Regional Councils potentially have an important role to play in coastal management, there are various factors which currently hinder their effectiveness. These factors include the extensive area of coastline under their jurisdiction, their inexperience with coastal and marine matters and legislation, their distance from local concerns, pressure on them to deliver basic needs and limited resources and capacity to meet their many responsibilities. Unless additional staff, training and financial resources are provided, it is likely that these councils will not be able to fulfil their responsibilities and that decisions will be guided by short-term economic goals rather than long-term considerations of sustainability. In the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal, proposals are under discussion to establish a lower level institution to deal with resource use and land development issues in coastal areas. The legal status and exact responsibilities of these proposed coastal development authorities is, however, unclear.

Institutional arrangements for local Government are still in a state of flux. The powers and functions of local Government have been generally defined in the Constitution and specific tasks have been assigned to them in terms of the LGTA and DFA. But the exact functions and responsibilities of each sphere of Government and the relationship between national, provincial and local spheres of Government is still in the process of being clarified. The White Paper on Local Government, released in March 1998, suggests that further restructuring of local Government will occur. Alternative models for the different categories of local Government are still being investigated and assessed. One possible scenario is that urban municipalities outside of metropolitan areas could be amalgamated with their rural counterparts. Because of this lack of clarity regarding local level institutions, proposed institutional arrangements for local Government's role in coastal management activities may not be appropriate or feasible when local Government restructuring is finalised.

The roles and responsibilities of local Government are extremely wide-ranging, including the provision of services, promotion of economic development and ensuring a healthy and safe environment. The formulation of land-use plans and IDPs is of critical importance to coastal management efforts. The recognition of coastal principles and issues in the formulation of these plans is important to ensure that coastal features, systems and assets are not degraded.

The current ambiguity over the role of traditional leaders in elected local Government structures is an issue of concern in the coastal management arena, particularly in remote, under-developed rural coastal areas. Here unscrupulous developers and entrepreneurs are by-passing existing procedures to deal directly with traditional authorities on land and development matters.

The White Paper on Local Government explores the strengths and weaknesses of different models of transitional local Government. It proposes different models for different categories, recognising the importance of assigning adequate powers for local structures to fulfil their responsibilities. The important role of traditional leadership is recognised and a co-operative model of governance is proposed. The White Paper establishes the basis for a new developmental local Government system, which is motivated and capacitated to fulfil its responsibilities. Implicit in this mandate is the requirement of local Government to balance local economic development needs with long-term environmental sustainability considerations.

Although the philosophy of delegating more responsibility and power to lower tiers of Government is generally supported, this approach must be accompanied by increased resources, capacity building and skills training.

Of concern is the limited environmental capacity at local Government level to meet these responsibilities. It is unlikely that local Government will be able to comply with and implement the requirements of a new Coastal Policy, unless there is support from higher levels of Government.

One way of enhancing the capacity of local Government to fulfil its coastal management responsibilities is to encourage the involvement of civil society and community organisations with an interest in coastal resources and issues.

Although many local authorities recognise their limited capacity to implement policy, they have acquired considerable practical experience of local coastal matters, and could make a major contribution to ensuring that implementable policy is developed.

Except for the larger municipalities, few local authorities have staff dedicated to coastal management. The integration of environmental considerations in the course of executing their functions therefore depends to a large extent on the capacity of individuals to identify potential environmental concerns and address them. Increasingly, local authorities are appointing consultants to assist with developing policies and plans, assuming that environmental issues will also be addressed by them in these processes.

Implications of current capacity within Government to manage the coast

Government departments at all three levels charged with environmental management responsibilities have a relatively lowly status and are under-resourced and under-staffed. This view is supported by a recent study to assess the capacity of provincial Government in environmental management. The study concludes that the provincial environmental departments lack the necessary human and financial resources and the expertise to execute environmental management functions.

In addition, most provinces are experiencing annual cuts in budgets allocated for environmental management and nature conservation. Of concern is that in all provinces, the vast majority of the budget is allocated to nature conservation functions and very little is allocated to general environmental management (e.g., in the Western Cape 1996/1997 financial year, R43 million was allocated to nature conservation and R1 million to environmental management). Yet the responsibilities of provincial environmental authorities are increasing. In terms of the new environmental impact assessment regulations, for example, the provincial environmental authority will in most instances act as the lead authority and will ensure compliance with regulations. At present, these regulations are one of the few tools available to regulate development in the coast. Although the regulations are being phased in, indications are that there is insufficient capacity within the provincial environmental authorities to fulfil this responsibility.

The situation in the Eastern Cape is particularly difficult. The rationalisation of three different administrations (the old Cape Provincial Administration, Ciskei and Transkei) into one department has resulted in most expertise being located in the western half of the province and a lack of qualified staff in the eastern half. A further issue of concern is the lack of capacity building to support affirmative action appointments.

Aside from the provincial environmental authorities, few other departments have staff dedicated to environmental matters, and none have staff dedicated to coastal matters. Most local authorities do not separate coastal management functions from environmental management generally. In most instances, except in the larger municipalities, capacity and resources to deal with environmental management are totally inadequate. Local authorities are more concerned with local town planning and economic development issues and ensuring service delivery for the poor than with resource conservation issues.

Most authorities feel that the lack of staff and resources result in them playing a reactive rather than proactive role in coastal management. To improve this lack of capacity, local authorities do work in co-operation with other national or statutory bodies which have an interest in or responsibility for coastal management, e.g., the KwaZulu-Natal Conservation Services and South African National Parks.

Because of the lack of capacity at all levels of Government to effectively manage the coast and its resources, Government will increasingly need to form partnerships with non-governmental organisations, community-based organisations and other resource user groups to assist in the task of management. Various forms of co-management between community groups and relevant Government departments are already being implemented. An assessment of the conditions under which these co-management systems operate effectively should inform the development of appropriate and feasible legislative and institutional scenarios for implementing the Coastal Policy.

APPENDIX 3: SOME INSTRUMENTS FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF COASTAL POLICY

INTRODUCTION

Numerous pieces of legislation (Acts, Ordinances and Bills) and policy strategies and instruments (White and Green Papers, spatial planning policies) are relevant to managing the human and natural components of the coast. Some of the key instruments and responsible Government agencies are shown in the Appendix Table 3.1.

However, as highlighted in Chapter 7, of this document, legislative and regulatory instruments are seen to be merely as one of many options for coastal management. Other possible instruments for implementation are outlined below.

OTHER POLICY INSTRUMENTS

Environmental management in South Africa has been characterised by two distinct features. Firstly, day-to-day management has primarily been undertaken by Government agencies. Secondly, the management style has tended to rely on a regulatory or "command and control" approach. This style of management has often proved neither efficient, nor effective, especially in some coastal areas. The reasons for the perceived inadequacies are many and varied. The lack of resources and limited capacity of coastal managers has made this situation worse. Internationally, there has been a move towards:

• Greater use of market-based measures and mechanisms, including a greater use of economic and information strategies
• Broadening the role of management to create partnerships between Government and civil society, including a range of co-management approaches that encompass collective management of specific resources and even complete outsourcing of management functions for an extended period to the private sector under a set of specified guidelines.

The objective of these new approaches is to make environmental management more efficient and effective, especially in the context of increasing stress on limited natural resources and decreasing financial resources available to local and regional managers.

Appendix Table 3.1: Legislative Instruments and Responsible Agencies

Goals	Objectives	Relevant Legislation, Bills and Policies	Responsible Agencies
Theme: (A) The Coast as a National Heritage
(A1) Physical access to and along the sea	Provision of opportunities for access	Sea Shore Act (1935), Marine Living Resources Act (1998), Provincial Planning Ordinances and Acts	National Government
	Appropriate management of access	Sea Shore Act (1935), Marine Living Resources Act (1998), Provincial Planning Ordinances and Acts	Public Works, Provinces
(A2) Equitable access to resources	Fair and just allocation of resources	Marine Living Resources Act (1998), Minerals Act (1991), Provincial Planning Ordinances and Acts	Environmental Affairs & Tourism (DEAT), Minerals & Energy, other
(A3) State as legal custodian of coastal assets	State ownership of coastal waters up to the High Water Mark	Sea Shore Act (1935)	Public Works, DEAT, Coastal Provinces
	State to maintain Admiralty Reserve	Sea Shore Act (1935), Title Deeds	Public Works, Surveyor General, Coastal Provinces
	Maintain State land along the sea-shore	Various Acts	Public Works, Coastal Provinces, other
	Manage parastatal land in public interest	State Land Disposal Act (1961), Provincial Planning Ordinances and Acts, Constitution Act (1996)	Provincial & National Government, Parastatals
(A4) Distinctive characteristics of the coast require dedicated management	Coastal planning and management to take into account the complex relationship between coastal ecosystems and human users	Constitution Act (1996), Environment Conservation Act (1989), National Environmental Management Bill (1998), National Parks Act (1976), Provincial Ordinances and Acts & Local Planning Policy	DEAT, Provincial, Local, S.A. National Parks
Theme: (B) Coastal Planning and Sustainable Development
(B1) Promote the sustainability of coastal-dependent economies and activities	Development of long-term local economic potential	National, Provincial & Local Development Strategies & Plans	Trade & Industry, Provincial, Local, other
	Preference to be given to coastal-dependent development	National, Provincial & Local Development Strategies & Plans	Trade & Industry, Provincial, Local, Private
(B1) Promote the sustainability of coastal-dependent economies and activities	Maintain and manage ports, harbours and related facilities	Sea-Shore Act (1935), Merchant Shipping Act (1951), Harbour Construction Act (1972), Provincial Ordinances and Acts & Local Planning Policy	Transport, DEAT, Provincial, Portnet, Private
	Provide public recreation amenities	Provincial Planning Acts and Ordinances and Local Planning Policy	Provincial, Local, Private
	Promote opportunities for mariculture development	Marine Living Resources Act (1998), National Environmental Management Bill (1998), Provincial Planning Acts and Ordinances	DEAT, Provincial, Private
	Promote opportunities for tourism and recreation	Tourism Act (1993), Provincial Planning Acts and Ordinances & Local Planning Policy	DEAT, Provincial, Local, SATOUR, Private
	Mining activities conducted in environmentally responsible manner	Minerals Act (1991), Minerals Green Paper (1998), National Environmental Management Bill(1998), Provincial Planning Acts and Ordinances	Minerals & Energy, DEAT, Provincial
(B2) Maintain a balance between built, rural and wilderness areas	Promote nodal development	Development Facilitation Act (1995), Provincial Planning Act and Ordinances & Local Planning Policy	Provincial, Local
	New developments to retain wilderness character of under-developed areas	Development Facilitation Act (1995), Provincial Planning Acts and Ordinances & Local Planning Policy	Provincial, Local
	Discourage inappropriate development in high potential agricultural areas	Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act (1983), Forestry Act (1984), Provincial Planning Acts and Ordinances & Local Planning Policies	DEAT, Agriculture, Provincial, Local
(B3) Appropriate design and management of coastal settlements	Design in harmony with aesthetic, cultural and biophysical values	Provincial Planning Acts and Ordinances & Local Planning Policies	Provincial, Local, Private
	Manage settlements to promote socio-economic benefits and minimise adverse effects on environment	Development Facilitation Act (1995), National Environmental Management Bill (1998), Water Act (1998), Health Act (1977), National Building Regulations (1977), Provincial Planning Acts and Ordinances & Local Planning Policies	DEAT, Water & Forestry, Health, Provincial, Local
(B4) Minimise risks and hazards to people, property and economic activities from dynamic coastal processes	Limit effects from coastal development on natural processes and reduce exposure from natural hazards	Development Facilitation Act (1995), Environment Conservation Act (1989), National Environmental Management Bill (1998), National Building Regulations & Standards (1977), Provincial Planning Acts and Ordinances & Local Planning Policies	DEAT, Provincial, Local
	Consideration of climate change and sea-level rise	National Environmental Management Bill (1998), Disaster Management White Paper (1998), Provincial Planning Acts and Ordinances & Local Planning	DEAT, Provincial Affairs, Provincial, Local, others
(B5) Protect and promote historical and cultural resources and activities	Preserve and protect significant coastal sites	National Monuments Act (1969), Provincial Planning Acts and Ordinance & Local Planning Policies	DEAT, Provincial, Local, National Monuments Council, Private
	Special consideration be given to traditional and cultural practices	Constitution Act (1996), Provincial Planning Acts and Ordinances & Local Planning Policies	National, Provincial, Local, Private
Theme: (C) Pollution Control and Waste Management
(C1) Implement pollution control and waste management measures to minimise discharges into coastal waters	Minimise and control discharges of land-based sources	Hazardous Substances Act (1973), International Health Regulations (1974), Water Act (1956), National Water Act (1998), National Environmental Management Bill (1998), Integrated Pollution & Waste Management White Paper (1998), Provincial Planning and Environmental Acts and Ordinances	DEAT, Water Affairs & Forestry, Health, Provincial, Local, Private
	Minimise and control discharges of marine-based sources	Marine Pollution Act (1986), Dumping at Sea Act(1980), Pollution of Sea by Oil Act( 1981), SA Transport Services Act (1989), Various International Conventions, Integrated Pollution and Waste Management White Paper (1998)	DEAT, Transport, Provincial, Private
	Implement measures to reduce pollution disasters and hazards	Disaster Management Bill (1998), National Environmental Management Bill (1998)	Provincial Affairs, DEAT, Provincial, Local, Private
(C2) Ensure healthy coastal ecosystems to support beneficial human uses	Discharges to be kept within assimilative capacity of ecosystems	Water Act (1956), National Water Act (1998), National Environmental Management Act (1998)	DEAT, Water Affairs & Forestry, Provincial, Local
	Human health, use and enjoyment of the coast not to be compromised	Health Act (1977), Provincial Planning Acts and Ordinances & Local Planning Policies	Provincial, Local
Theme: (D) Natural Resource Management
(D1) Maintain the diversity, health and productivity of ecosystems	Maintain the natural functioning of coastal processes and productivity of coastal ecosystems	National Environmental Management Bill (1998), Marine Living Resources Act (1998), Biological Diversity White Paper (1998), Provincial Planning and Environmental Management Acts and Ordinances, Local Planning Policies	DEAT, Provincial, S.A. National Parks, Local, Private
	Maintain the biological diversity of coastal ecosystems	National Environmental Management Bill (1998), Marine Living Resources Act (1998), Biological Diversity White Paper (1998), Provincial Planning and Environmental Management Acts and Ordinances, Local Planning Policies	DEAT, Provincial, S.A. National Parks, Local, Private
(D2) Establish and manage a system of coastal protected areas	Manage protected areas to ensure diversity of coastal ecosystems	National Environmental Management Bill (1998), Marine Living Resources Act (1998), Biological Diversity White Paper (1998), National Parks Act (1976), Provincial Planning and Environmental Management Acts and Ordinances	DEAT, Provincial, National Parks Board, Private
	Integrate coastal protected areas across land and sea	National Environmental Management Bill (1998), Marine Living Resources Act (1998), Biological Diversity White Paper (1998), National Parks Act (1976), Provincial Planning and Environmental Management Acts and Ordinances	DEAT, Provincial, National Parks Board, Local, Private
	Provide for variation of the level of protection and human use of protected areas according to established objectives for the area	National Environmental Management Bill (1998), Marine Living Resources Act (1998), Biological Diversity White Paper (1998), National Parks Act (1976), Provincial Planning and Environmental Management Acts and Ordinances	DEAT, Provincial, National Parks Board, Local, Private
(D3) Utilise renewable resources within regenerative capacity of ecosystems	Develop adequate understanding of regenerative capacities of ecosystems	National Environmental Management Bill (1998), Maritime Zones Act (1994), Marine Living Resources Act (1998), Biological Diversity White Paper (1998), State Forest Act (1992), National Water Act (1998)	DEAT, Water Affairs & Forestry
	Optimise long-term economic viability of the activity	National Environmental Management Bill (1998), Maritime Zones Act (1994), Marine Living Resources Act (1998), Biological Diversity White Paper (1998), State Forest Act (1992), National Water Bill (1998)	DEAT, Water Affairs & Forestry, Agriculture, Trade & Industry
(D4) Ensure optimal use of non-renewable resources for long-term public interest	Retain options for multiple-use in public interest	Constitution Act (1996), Minerals Act (1991), Minerals Green Paper (1998), Development Facilitation Act (1995), National Environmental Management Bill (1998), Provincial Planning Acts and Ordinances	National, Minerals & Energy, DEAT, Trade & Industry, Provincial, Local, Private
	Retain future options for sequential use in the public interest	Constitution Act (1996), Minerals Act (1991), Minerals Green Paper (1998), Development Facilitation Act (1995), National Environmental Management Bill (1998), Provincial Planning Acts and Ordinances	National, Minerals & Energy, DEAT, Trade & Industry, Provincial, Local, Private
(D5) Rehabilitation of degraded coastal ecosystems	Rehabilitate coastal ecosystems degraded by past activities	Minerals Act (1991), Minerals Green Paper (1998), National Environmental Management Bill (1998), Provincial Planning and Environmental Management Acts and Ordinances	Minerals & Energy, DEAT, Provincial, Local, Private
	Ensure existing and future activities require rehabilitation to acceptable standards	Minerals Act (1991), Minerals Green Paper (1998), National Environmental Management Bill (1998), Provincial Planning and Environmental Management Acts and Ordinances	Minerals & Energy, DEAT, Provincial, Local, Private
Theme: (E) Governance and Capacity Building
(E1) Provide for public and State partnerships and co-responsibility in coastal management	Ensure meaningful public participation in coastal planning and management	Constitution Act (1996), Development Facilitation Act (1995), National Environmental Management Bill (1998), Provincial Planning Acts and Ordinances & Local Planning Policies	DEAT, Provincial, Local, Private
	Organs of State to foster a sense of co-responsibility between the State and civil society	Constitution Act (1996), Development Facilitation Act(1995), National Environmental Management Bill (1998), Provincial Planning Acts and Ordinances & Local Planning Policies	DEAT, Provincial, Local, Private
(E2) Build capacity and awareness of all managers and affected parties on coastal management issues	Develop awareness, education and training programmes	Constitution Act (1996), National Environmental Management Bill (1998), Provincial Planning Acts and Ordinances & Local Planning Policies	DEAT, Provincial, Local, Private
	Provide adequate financial, technical and human resources	National, Provincial and Local Annual Budgets	National, DEAT, Provincial, Local
	Develop an effective, co-ordinated national information system	National Environmental Management Bill (1998)	DEAT, Provincial
(E3) Promote efficient and co-ordinated coastal planning and management	Promote the use of regulatory and economic instruments	National Environmental Management Bill (1998), Marine Living Resource Act (1998), Provincial Planning Acts and Ordinances & Local Planning Policies	DEAT, Provincial, Local, Private
	Ensure coastal management and planning decision-making is clear, simple and speeded up	Constitution Act (1996), Development Facilitation Act (1995), National Environmental Management Bill (1998), Marine Living Resources Act (1998), Provincial Planning Acts, Ordinances & Local Planning Policies	DEAT, Provincial, Local, Private
	Provide institutional arrangements to promote dialogue, co-operation and co-ordination	Constitution Act (1996), Development Facilitation Act (1995), National Environmental Management Bill (1998), Marine Living Resources Act (1998), Provincial Planning Acts, Ordinances & Local Planning Policies	National, Provincial Affairs, DEAT, Provincial, Local
(E3) Promote efficient and co-ordinated coastal planning and management	Ensure effective conflict resolution procedures	Constitution Act (1996), Development Facilitation Act (1995), National Environmental Management Bill (1998), Marine Living Resources Act (1998), Provincial Planning Acts, Ordinances & Local Planning Policies	Judicial System, DEAT, Provincial, Local, others
(E4) Fulfil international and trans-boundary responsibilities	Fulfil international protocol and agreements, whilst maintaining S.A.'s sovereignty	Constitution Act (1996), National Environmental Management Bill (1998), International Conventions & Agreements	National, DEAT, Foreign Affairs
	Develop relationships with other countries with respect to coastal management in South Africa	National Environmental Management Bill (1998), International Conventions & Agreements	National, DEAT, Foreign Affairs
(E5) Coastal management to be continuously adapted and implemented	Coastal management programme to be informed through continuous research, monitoring and review		DEAT, others
	Coastal management activities to be strategic, focused and practically implementable		DEAT, others

THE ACTORS AND ACTIVITIES

A range of managers (referred to as actors) is involved in coastal planning and management in a variety of different ways. These actors include:

• Government authorities (national, provincial, local)
• Parastatals (e.g., South African National Parks, Portnet, Eskom)
• Institutions (e.g., universities, National Monuments Council, professional bodies)
• Private sector (e.g., commerce, industry, property developers)
• Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) (e.g., NSRI, Wildlife & Environment Society, Coast Watch, Botanical Society)
• Community-based organisations (CBOs) (e.g., Residents Associations, Community Trusts, Forums, Labour Organisations).

Actors undertake a range of activities, both formally and informally. The effectiveness of their involvement is highly variable and depends on a range of factors, such as financial and administrative constraints, available human resources, level of skill and training and political will.

The coastal management matrix shown below in Appendix Table 3.2 describes some of the existing activities that actors are involved in. It is apparent from the matrix that significant scope exists for other stakeholders, not traditionally involved in coastal management, to play a greater role. For example, the private sector already plays an important role in policy and planning, and could become more involved in development control or resource management functions. Community-based organisations could become involved in resource management, operation and maintenance, or environmental monitoring activities.

Appendix Table 3.2: Present Status of Coastal Management Roles in South Africa

Activity	Nat Gov	Prov Gov	Local Gov	Para-Statal	Inst	Private	NGO	CBO
Planning & Policy	Ö	Ö	Ö	Ö	Ö	Ö
Development Control		Ö	Ö
Resource Management	Ö	Ö	Ö				Ö
Capital Development	Ö	Ö	Ö	Ö		Ö
Operation & Maintenance	Ö	Ö	Ö	Ö		Ö
Environmental Monitoring	Ö	Ö	Ö	Ö	Ö		Ö
Administration	Ö	Ö	Ö	Ö
Legal Enforcement	Ö	Ö	Ö
Funding	Ö	Ö				Ö
Lobbying				Ö	Ö	Ö	Ö	Ö
Research	Ö			Ö	Ö		Ö
Education	Ö	Ö			Ö		Ö
Training					Ö			Ö
Advice	Ö	Ö	Ö		Ö	Ö	Ö

Adapted from: Durban Metropolitan – Open Space System Framework Plan (1998)

MANAGEMENT STYLES

In the discussion document "National Strategy for Integrated Environmental Management in South Africa (1998)", the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism indicated the need to adapt present management styles to incorporate, where appropriate, various market-based strategies, as a supplement to the existing regulatory approach to management. The environmental management styles indicated below in Appendix Table 3.3, show the range of possible strategies that could be used in different management situations. No single strategy is likely to be effective. Rather a combination of regulatory, incentive-based and information-based strategies should be used.

A number of the regulatory and information instruments in Table 3.3 are currently used on a regular basis in South Africa. Market-based incentives for environmental management, while used commonly in various other parts of the world, have not yet been used to any great extent in this country.

In subsequent phases of the Coastal Management Policy Programme, work on economic incentives for coastal management will be developed in greater detail. Examples of some possible new responses to existing coastal management issues are given in Appendix Table 3.4.

Appendix Table 3.3: Environmental Management Styles

Directive–Based Regulatory	Incentive–Based Strategies	Information-Based Strategies
Bans	Co–management	Education
Permits / licences	Negotiated agreements	Eco–audits
Regulations	Cross compliance mechanisms	Environmental management systems
Penalties / fines	Privatisation	Environmental impact assessments
Zonings / set back lines	Sequential use	Accreditation
Easements / conditions	Multiple use	Codes of practice
Acquisition	Resource charges	Awards
Quotas	User charges	Training
Trade restrictions	Pollution charges
Ambient standards	Product charges
Protected areas	Land use charges
Monitoring	Input charges
	Tradable permits
	Tradable quotas
	Investment credits
	Accelerated depreciation
	Product / service subsidies
	Basic needs subsidies
	Deposit refund system
	Environmental performance bonds
	Green funds
	Environmental valuation

Appendix Table 3.4: Examples of Responses to Coastal Management Issues

Activity or Impact	Existing Responses	Possible other Responses
Off road vehicles (ORV) on beach areas causing environmental damage to ecosystems and nuisance to some members of the community	Use of Regulations Municipal by-laws Penalties & fines Education campaigns	Co-management between local residents and local government Co-management between Local Government and ORV clubs Codes of conduct by ORV Self-regulation by ORV clubs Resource use charges Special area zoning for ORV on dune systems Industry labelling (Toyota, Isuzu etc.) involved in beach management Tradable permits (set total limit in particular area)
Insufficient public recreational amenities and access to beach areas	Local government provides facilities where possible	Privatisation – on a tender basis Industrial labelling –e.g., Wimpy walkway, MacDonald public toilets, Spur lifeguards
State land above the high water mark is not well managed	Limited and inconsistent management from Department of Public Works, provincial governments and local government	National Government provide incentives to provinces to identify existing state land Land swops, and subdivision rights linked to supplementing state land and access rights Relevant NGOs, CBOs (e.g., CoastCare, school groups) involved in co-management Adjacent private landowners and state in co-management, linked to rates rebates
Intertidal and marine resources used unsustainably resulting in degraded ecosystems subsistence and other coastal dependant communities suffering loss in recreational and tourism opportunities	Regulations may or may exist Limited or no enforcement due to lack of human resources Limited education campaigns	Ensure adequate regulations in place Involve NGOs, CBOs in enforcement and management Management out to tender to private companies to manage allocation, enforcement and protection Education and awareness with local council, community and schools (sponsored by local commerce and industry)

APPENDIX 4: CONTRIBUTING SPECIALISTS

SPECIALIST STUDIES
LIST OF AUTHORS, ARTISTS AND REVIEWERS

Characterisation and assessment

Author - National overview report

J Largier, University of Cape Town

Authors - West Coast reports

E Boonzaier, University of Cape Town
C Griffiths, University of Cape Town
G Huggins, Scott Wilson, Planning andDevelopment Resources
Z Jakavula, University of Cape Town
J Largier, University of Cape Town
N Nattrass, University of Cape Town
J Parkington, University of Cape Town

Authors - South Coast reports

T Avis, Coastal & Enviromental Services, Grahamstown
J Christopher, University of Port Elizabeth
S Hosking, University of Port Elizabeth
L McGwynne, University of Port Elizabeth
Guy Nicolson, Guy Nicolson Consulting Services
R Lubke, Rhodes University

Authors- East Coast reports

R Diab, University of Natal
F Ellery, University of Natal
B Elliot, University of Cape Town
G Garland, University of Natal
J Harris, KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Services
B Mann, KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Services
J Ngubane, University of Natal, Durban
F Pupuma, University of Durban-Westville
K Sink, University of Cape Town
R Taylor, KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Services
L van Schalkwyk, Amafa aKwaZulu-Natali

Editors - East Coast reports

N Demetriades, University of Natal
A Forbes, University of Natal
J McCarthy, University of Durban-Westville

Author - Prince Edward Island report

L Kruger, University of Cape Town

Internal reviewers

Economy: S Hosking, University of Port Elizabeth
Natural Systems: L McGwynne, University of Port Elizabeth
Natural Resources: G Branch, University of Cape Town
Settlement/Infrastructure: B Gasson, University of Cape Town
Society: C Lewis, Rhodes University
Overall Report Review: J Barker, University of Cape Town
Price Edward Island report: P Ryan, University of Cape Town; C Hänel, University of Pretoria; S Chown, University of Pretoria; G Branch, University of Cape Town; J Barker, University of Cape Town

Artists

H Aikman
R Docke
R Roberts
S Sayers

Independent review panel

P Burbridge University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
A Forbes University of Natal
J McCarthy University of Durban-Westville

Lessons learned

National team
Authors:

P Fielding, Oceanographic Research Institute
J Kiepiel, Regional Planning Consultant
R Peart, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
T Quinlan, University of Durban-Westville

Co-ordinators:

S Lane, Environmental Consultant
M Wallis, University of Durban-Westville

Internal reviewer:

D Dewar, University of Cape Town

International team

L Zeitlin Hale, University of Rhode Island, USA
M Ngoile, University of Dar es Salam, Tanzania
E Meltzer, Meltzer Research and Consulting, Canada

Independent review panel

M Bruton, Two Oceans Aquarium

Legal and institutional
Authors

J Glazewski, University of Cape Town
M Sowman, University of Cape Town

Contributors

A Khan, University of the Western Cape
T Nkosi, Legal Resources Centre
E Russell, PondoCROP
P Theron, Consultant

Internal reviewers

P Rutch, Land and development lawyer
S Turner, University of the Western Cape

Written comments

J Beaumont, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
S Schneier, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism

External review panel

J Ridl, Ridl-Glavovic Associates

Related initiatives
Authors

S Eekhout, Eco-Africa Environmental Consultants
A Fredricks, Peninsula Technikon
J Marshall, Environmental Design Partnership
F Mullagee, Eco-Africa Environmental Consultants
F Odendaal , Eco-Africa Environmental Consultants
T Phillips, Eco-Africa Environmental Consultants
K Salo, Peninsula Technikon
W Sauer, Rhodes University
J Whitehead, Siyakhana Consulting Company

Independent review panel

J McCarthy, University of Durban-Westville
M McGrath, Institute of Natural Resources
J Ridl, Ridl-Glavovic Associates

Value of the Coast

P Burbridge, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
M Mander, University of Natal
R van der Elst, Oceanographic Research Institute

SPECIALIST TASK TEAM

G Branch, University of Cape Town
P Burbridge, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
J Glazewski, University of Cape Town
N Malan, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Cape Town
M Mander, Institute of Natural Resources
M Mbengashe, Department of Economic Affairs: Environment and Tourism, Eastern Cape
S Mithar, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Northern Cape
A Muller, University of Stellenbosch
L Platzky, WESGRO
R Porter, Nature Conservation Services
J Ridl, Ridl-Glavovic Associates
D Roberts, South Central Council: Durban
E Russel, Pondocrop
W Smith, Department of Housing and Planning, Western Cape
M Sowman, University of Cape Town
R van der Elst, Oceanographic Research Institute

COMMENTS ON DRAFT GREEN PAPER

In addition to comments from the Policy Committee, Regional Managers, Project Management Team and Specialist Task Team the following specialists also provided comment on drafts of this document:

J Beaumont, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
L Beckley, Oceanographic Research Institute
R Browne, Ottawa, Canada
P Burbridge, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
J Glazewski, University of Cape Town
P Glavovic, University of Natal
L Hale, University of Rhode Island, USA
A Heydorn, World Wildlife Fund South Africa
P Morant, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
M McGrath, University of Natal
A Rabie, University of Stellenbosch
N Schialabba, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Italy
S Schneier, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
M Sowman, University of Cape Town
E Torrell, University of Rhode Island, USA

REFERENCES

1. Avis, T., J. Christopher, S. Hosking, R. Lubke, L. McGwynne and G. Nicholson. 1998. Garden Route Region, Western District Region, Border-Kei Region, Wild Coast Region. In Characterisation and Assessment of the South African Coast. Coastal Management Policy Programme, Cape Town.

2. Branch, M. and G. Branch. 1983. The Living Shores of Southern Africa. C. Struik (Pty) Ltd, Cape Town.

3. Chalmers, R. 1998. Portnet to spend R7bn on upgrades. Business Day, 10 July.

4. Cicin-Sain, B. and R. W. Knecht. 1998. Integrated Coastal and Ocean Management: Concepts and Practices. Island Press, Washington D.C.

5. Costanza, R., d'Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K., Naeem, S., O'Neill, R., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R. G., Sutton, P. and M. van den Belt. 1997. The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387: 253-260.

6. Davey-Moran, J., R. Diab, B. Elliot, G. Garland, J. Harris, B. Mann, J. Ngubane, F. Pupuma, K. Sink, R. Taylor and B. Tomalin. 1998. Hibiscus Coast Region, Durban Metro Region, Dolphin Coast Region, Zululand Region, Maputaland region. In Characterisation and Assessment of the South African Coast. Eds T. Forbes, J. McCarthy and N. Demetriades. Coastal Management Policy Programme, Cape Town.

7. Fielding, P., J. Kiepiel, R. Peart and T. Quilan. 1998. Research Report, Policy Process Report, Summary of Lessons Learned and Provisional Position on Policy Design, Synopsis Report. In Lessons Learned from Past Experience. Coastal Management Policy Programme, Cape Town.

8. Fielding, P., J. Kiepiel, R. Peart, T. Quilan, L. Hale, E. Meltzer and M. Ngoile. 1998. Summary Report. In Lessons Learned from Past Experience. Coastal Management Policy Programme, Cape Town.

9. GESAMP (Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection). 1996. The contributions of Science to Integrated Coastal Management. GESAMP Reports and Studies, No. 61.

10 . Glazewski, J. and M. Sowman. 1998. Review of Legislative and Institutional Arrangements for Coastal Policy in South Africa. Coastal Management Policy Programme, Cape Town.

11 . Hale, L., E. Meltzer and M. Ngoile. 1998. Application of International Experience to Formulation of a National Policy for Coastal Management for the Republic of South Africa. In Lessons Learned from Past Experience Coastal Management Policy Programme, Cape Town.

12 .Hatziolos, M., C. G. Lundin and A. Alm. 1996. Africa: A Framework for Integrated Coastal Zone Management. The World Bank, Washington D.C.

13 .Heydorn, A. E. F. 1989. Estuaries and the open sea. In Oceans of Life off Southern Africa. Eds A. I. L. Payne and R. J. M. Crawford. Vlaeberg Publishers, Cape Town.

14 .Hinrichsen, D. 1998. Coastal Waters of the World. Trends, Threats, and Strategies. Island Press, Washington D.C.

15 .Kruger, L. 1998. Prince Edward Island. In Characterisation and Assessment of the South African Coast. Coastal Management Policy Programme, Cape Town.

16 .Largier, J. 1998. National Summary. In Characterisation and Assessment of the South African Coast. Eds Forbes, T., J. McCarthy and N. Demetriades. Coastal Management Policy Programme, Cape Town.

17 .Largier, J., C. Griffiths, N. Nattrass, G. Huggins and E. Boonzaier. 1998. Namaqualand Region, West Coast Region, Cape Metro Region, Agulhas Coast Region. In Characterisation and Assessment of the South African Coast. Coastal Management Policy Programme, Cape Town.

18 .McGrath, M. D., C. C. M. Horner, S. L. Brouwer, S. J. Lamberth, B. Q. Mann, W. H. H. Sauer and C. Erasmus. 1997. An economic valuation of the South Africa linefishery. South African Journal of Marine Science 18: 203-211.

19 .Salo, K., S. Eekhout, F. Odendaal, W. Sauer, J Whitehead and J. Marshall. 1998. Main Report, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape Province, Western Cape Province, Northern Cape Province. In Related Initiatives currently underway in South Africa. Coastal Management Policy Programme, Cape Town.

20 .Van Teylingen, K., A. McLachlan, C. Rickard and G. Kerley. 1993. Conservation status of the vertebrate fauna of coastal dunes in South Africa, Biodiversity Series Report No. 1. Department of Environmental Affairs and Foundation for Research Development, Pretoria.

21 .Wilkins, N. 1998. Summary Report: Poverty and inequality in South Africa. Office of the Deputy President, South Africa.

RECOMMENDED READINGS

Coastal management: South Africa

1. Branch, M. and G. Branch. 1981. The Living Shores of Southern Africa. C. Struik (Pty) Ltd, Cape Town.

2. Council for the Environment. 1989. A Policy for Coastal Zone Management in the Republic of South Africa. Part 1. Principles and Objectives. Joan Lötter Publications, Pretoria.

3. Council for the Environment. 1991. A Policy for Coastal Zone Management in the Republic of South Africa. Part 2. Guidelines for Coastal Land-Use. Academia Publishers, Pretoria.

4. Glazewski, J. 1997. Towards a Coastal Zone Management Act for South Africa. The South African Journal of Environmental Law and Policy 4(1):1-22.

5. Heydorn, A. E. F. and K. L. Tinley. 1980. Estuaries of the Cape. Part 1. Synopsis of the Cape Coast. Natural Features, Dynamics & Utilization. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Stellenbosch.

6. Heydorn, A. E. F., Glazewski, J. I. and B. C. Glavovic. 1992. The Coastal Zone. In Environmental Management in South Africa. Eds Fuggle, R. F. and M. A. Rabie. Juta & Co. Ltd., Cape Town.

7. Payne, A. I. L., Crawford, R. J. M. and A. Van Dalsen. 1989. Oceans of Life off Southern Africa. Vlaeberg Publishers, Cape Town.

8. Sowman, M. R. 1993. The status of Coastal Management in South Africa. Coastal Management 21:163-184.

9. Tinley, K. L. 1985. Coastal Dunes of South Africa. South African National Scientific Programmes Report No. 109. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria.

Coastal management: International

1. Beatley, T., Brower, D. J., and A. K. Schwab. 1994. An Introduction to Coastal Zone Management. Island Press, Washington D.C.

2. Cicin-Sain, N, B. and R. W. Knecht. 1998. Integrated Coastal and Ocean Management: Concepts and Practices. Island Press, Washington D.C.

3. Hatziolos, M., C. G. Lundin and A. Alm. 1996. Africa: A Framework for Integrated Coastal Zone Management. Washington, D.C.

4. Hinrichsen, D. 1998. Coastal Waters of the World. Trends, Threats, and Strategies. Island Press, Washington, D.C.

5. Sorenson, J. 1997. National and International Efforts at Integrated Coastal Management: Definitions, Achievements and Lessons. Coastal Management 25:3-41.

6. World Bank. 1993. Noordwijk Guidelines for Integrated Coastal Management. Document presented at World Coast Conference, 1993, November 1-5, Noordwijk, Netherlands. Republished as Post, J. C., and C. G. Lundin. 1996. Guidelines for Integrated Coastal Zone Management. Environmentally Sustainable Development Studies and Monographs Series No. 9. The World Bank, Washington, D.C.

[ Top ]